Macedonia
2016 Country Review
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 1
Country Overview 1
Country Overview 2
Key Data 4
Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia 5
Europe 6
Chapter 2 8
Political Overview 8
History 9
Political Conditions 13
Political Risk Index 33
Political Stability 47
Freedom Rankings 63
Human Rights 74
Government Functions 77
Government Structure 79
Principal Government Officials 86
Leader Biography 89
Leader Biography 89
Foreign Relations 94
National Security 101
Defense Forces 103
Chapter 3 105
Economic Overview 105
Economic Overview 106
Nominal GDP and Components 112
Population and GDP Per Capita 114
Real GDP and Inflation 115
Government Spending and Taxation 116
Money Supply, Interest Rates and Unemployment 117
Foreign Trade and the Exchange Rate 118
Data in US Dollars 119
Energy Consumption and Production Standard Units 120 Energy Consumption and Production QUADS 122
World Energy Price Summary 123
CO2 Emissions 124
Agriculture Consumption and Production 125
World Agriculture Pricing Summary 128
Metals Consumption and Production 129
World Metals Pricing Summary 132
Economic Performance Index 133
Chapter 4 145
Investment Overview 145
Foreign Investment Climate 146
Foreign Investment Index 149
Corruption Perceptions Index 162
Competitiveness Ranking 174
Taxation 183
Stock Market 184
Partner Links 184
Chapter 5 185
Social Overview 185
People 186
Human Development Index 188
Life Satisfaction Index 192
Happy Planet Index 203
Status of Women 212
Global Gender Gap Index 215
Culture and Arts 224
Etiquette 225
Travel Information 225
Diseases/Health Data 235
Chapter 6 241
Environmental Overview 241
Environmental Issues 242
Environmental Policy 242
Greenhouse Gas Ranking 244
Global Environmental Snapshot 255
Global Environmental Concepts 267 International Environmental Agreements and Associations 281
Appendices 305
Bibliography 306 Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia
Chapter 1
Country Overview
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Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia
Country Overview
FORMER YUGOSLAV REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA
The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) is located in Southeastern Europe, north of Greece. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Macedonia fell under the control of the Byzantine Empire in the 6th and 7th centuries. During this period, large groups of Slavic people migrated to the Balkan region. The Ottoman Turks conquered the territory in the 15th century, and after more than four centuries of Turkish rule, the region was split between Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia in 1913. Macedonia became one of the constituent republics of the Socialist Federal
Republic of Yugoslavia following World War II, and gained its independence peacefully from
Yugoslavia in 1991. The country was spared the inter-ethnic violence that raged elsewhere in the Balkans following the break-up of Yugoslavia, but it came close to civil war a decade after independence. Some ethnic Albanians, angered by perceived political and economic inequities, launched an insurgency in 2001 that eventually won the support of the majority of Macedonia's
Albanian population and led to the internationally-brokered Framework Agreement, which ended the fighting by establishing a set of new laws enhancing the rights of minorities. At independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, Macedonia was the least developed of the Yugoslav republics. For more than a decade after independence, economic growth was sluggish, in part due to external shocks.
Hyperinflation in the early 1990s, trade embargoes by Greece over the dispute about the country’s constitutional name and flag, regional conflict, and the 2001 internal security crisis compounded the problems of restructuring and creating a market economy. Economic growth has picked up in recent years supported by improvements in the business climate and a surge in foreign direct investment.
Note:
In recent times, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) and Greece have been embroiled in an ongoing imbroglio over the usage of the historic name "Macedonia." Greece has said it would work to prevent FYROM from entering the European Union and NATO unless it conceded to its demands over the name Macedonia, which Greece says properly belongs to its culture and should be distinguished from the Slavic terrain of the same name. To that end,
FYROM has petitioned the International Court of Justice at The Hague to consider its case in this regard. But in 2008, animosity between the two countries contributed to Greece's decision to thwart the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia from joining NATO. Greece has also warned it would continue to work to prevent the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia from joining the EU.
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Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia
Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia Review 2016
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Key Data
Key Data
Region: Europe
Population: 2096015
Hot, dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall
Climate:
Macedonian, Albanian, Turkish, remnants of Serbo-Croatian language typology also spoken in certain areas
Languages:
Currency: denar
Holiday: Independence Day is 3 September, Freedom Fighter's Day is 4 July
Area Total: 25333
Area Land: 24856
Coast Line: 0
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Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia
Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia
Country Map
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Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia
Europe
Regional Map
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Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia
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Chapter 2
Political Overview
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Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia
History
Editor's Note: There is a distinction between the larger historical region referred to as
Macedonia and the contemporary country called the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM). The contemporary FYROM is also to be distinguished from the Greek area of Macedonia.
The contemporary nation state, called the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM), is part of a larger historical region of the same name, Macedonia. The early Macedonian tribes were more ethnically, linguistically and culturally related to the ancient Greeks than to the Slavs, although contemporary Macedonians have ethnic, linguistic and cultural features consistent with
Slavic typologies. Historically, ancient Macedonia existed from the 8th century B.C.E. until the fall of the Roman Empire. The history of the ancient Macedonian state began at the time of King
Karan, who ruled from 808-778 B.C.E. Two centuries later, capitals were established at Pella and Aigai.
The ancient Macedonian state reached new heights during the reign of Philip II of Macedonia from
359-336 B.C.E. Under Philip II, the Macedonian kingdom included northen Greece, southwestern
Bulgaria and the Illyrian territories, which became Yugoslavia in the 20th century. Under Philip's son, Alexander the Great, the kingdom reached its zenith from 336-323 B.C.E. Alexander expanded the kingdom and created the vast Macedonian Empire that extended from Egypt to northern India. After Alexander's death, the empire disintegrated into a number of Hellenic (Greek) kingdoms.
By 168 B.C.E., Rome conquered the region, and made it part of the Roman Empire. Roman rule continued for centuries. By the second half of the 6th century C.E., the Slavs emigrated southward from Pannonia to the area which is now called the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM). A century later, they were followed by the Turkic ancestors of the Bulgars (Bulgarians) who moved south of the Danube. Together, they form the ancestors of today's Macedonians (that is to say, the Macedonians of FYROM). The struggles for survival and consolidation of the new country lasted for about 200 years.
During the 9th century, Byzantine brothers, Cyril and Methodius, founded Slavic literacy and promoted Christianity among the Slavic people. It was their work that encouraged the language of Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia Review 2016
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Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia the Slavs of historic Macedonia to become a fourth official language, next to Greek, Latin and Hebrew. In that period, Boris, the Khan of the Bulgars, followed the missionary activities of the Byzantine brothers, and spread Eastern Orthodox Christianity in the region.
Toward the end of the 9th century, the Ohrid Literary School was founded. The opening of the first Slavic University in Ohrid, founded by the Slavonic apostles St. Clement and St. Nahum, was an event of far-reaching importance. The Ohrid Literary School gave impetus to the growth of Slavic culture and literacy and to the spreading of Christianity. The establishment of the first Slavic bishopric, which became an archbishopric during the reign of Samuel, marked the beginning of the Macedonian Orthodox Church.
The 10th century marked the beginning of the first Macedonian Slavic state with the Kingdom of Samuel (976-1018). The legacy of this state has remained deeply rooted in the minds of the Macedonian people. For four centuries after the fall of Samuel's kingdom, rebellions and frequent changes of rule disrupted historic Macedonia's development. In the 11th century, there were two major uprisings against Byzantine rule, one led by Petar Deljan, Samuel's grandson, in 1040, and the other by Gjorgji Vojteh in 1072. The 13th century saw the rise of the Macedonian feudal lords
Dobromir Hrs in 1201 and Strez in 1211.
In 1346, a Serbian patriarchate was established at Skopje. In 1389, however, the Turkish Ottoman
Empire conquered the Serbian nobility. By the end of the 14th century, in 1392, historic
Macedonia fell under Ottoman rule. Ottoman rule lasted for five centuries. The first significant resistance movements were the Mariovo-Prilep Rebellion from 1564 to 1565, and the Karposh uprising in 1689.
The 19th century was a period of growing national awareness among the Macedonian people.
Literacy and education flourished and the foundations of modern Macedonian literature were laid.
The leading lights were: Kiril Pejchinovich, Joakim Krchovski, Partenija Zograf-ski, and the brothers Dimitar and Konstantin Miladinov. Bishop Theodosius of Skopje started a campaign for an independent Macedonian Orthodox Church and tried to restore the Ohrid Archbishopric, which had been abolished in 1767.
The second half of the 19th century was marked by the beginning of the national revolutionary struggle for the liberation of Macedonia (now FYROM). The Razlovtsi and Kresna uprisings, in
1876 and 1878 respectively, had a strong influence on the growth of Macedonian national awareness. In 1893, the Macedonian revolutionary organization known as VMRO (Internal
Macedonian Revolutionary Organization) was founded in Salonica, with Gotse Delchev as its leader. Its objectives were national freedom and the establishment of an independent Macedonian state.
August 2, 1903, marked the Ilinden uprising against the Ottomans. The revolutionaries liberated the Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia Review 2016
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The area around Macedonia served as the battleground for two Balkan wars. In 1912, the First
Balkan War began. The allied Balkan countries of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece won a victory over Ottoman Turkey. In May 1913, the Peace of London effectively removed the Turks from the European territories. In the Second Balkan War, the allies from the First Balkan War fought over the division of the area around Macedonia. With the Bucharest Peace Treaty,
Macedonia was divided among Bulgaria, Greece and Serbia.
In 1914, Hapsburg Austro-Hungary declared war on Serbia, igniting World War I between the Central Powers (Austro-Hungary and Germany) and the Entente Powers (the United Kingdom,
France and Russia). By 1915, Serbian Macedonia was occupied by Bulgaria, which had joined the Central Powers. In 1918, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, was proclaimed, uniting
Serbia and Montenegro with the former Hapsburg lands, under the Serbian monarchy. It was later called Yugoslavia or the Yugoslav Kingdom.
By 1919, after the end of World War I, the Macedonian region was still divided. The period between the two world wars was filled with constant endeavors to change the Macedonian situation and annul the division of the country and its people. In 1935, MANAPO (Macedonian
National Movement) was founded in the Vardar part of Macedonia. In 1940, the democratic groups of the Macedonian region defined the political program for the national and social liberation of the country. By April 1941, the Yugoslav Kingdom, which was already partitioned, was invaded and defeated by the German fascist army. In May, Bulgaria and Italy occupied MANAPO's birthplace, Vardar.
On October 11, 1941, the war for the liberation of Macedonia from Nazi occupation began. By
1943, anti-fascist sentiment supported for the growing communist movement and soon thereafter, the Communist Party of Macedonia was established. In the same year, the first unit of the army of Macedonia was founded. Bodies of government, such as national liberation councils, began to be formed over the whole territory of Macedonia. The headquarters of the National Liberation Army
(NOV) published the manifesto of the goals of the war of liberation.
Subsequently, the Anti-Fascist Assembly of the National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) declared the Federative Democratic Yugoslavia. Macedonia was one of its constituent republics.
The first session of the Anti-Fascist Assembly of the National Liberation of Macedonia (ASNOM) was held in the monastery of St. Prohor Pchinski on Aug. 2, 1944. Representatives from all parts of Macedonia, including the Pirin and the Aegean parts of the country, gathered for the occasion and decided on the constitution of a modern Macedonian state as a member of the new Yugoslav federation, with a communist mandate.
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After the end of World War II in 1945, the first Macedonian government was formed. The Serbian part of Macedonia became a full republic of Yugoslavia. In 1946, under Prime Minister Tito, efforts to foster a Macedonian identity were further advanced. In 1963, a new constitution changed the country's name to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
In the 45 years that followed World War II, the Macedonian state remained one of the six equal constituent republics of the Yugoslav federation. In 1989, efforts were made to amend the constitution to include a multiparty system, but ethnic tensions arose over the characterization of the nation as comprised of ethnic Macedonians, and omitting any mention of ethnic minorities.
In 1990, a number of nationalist parties were formed, some advocating Western-style reforms, such as the Alliance of Reform Forces (ARF, later the Liberal Democratic Party). When the extremist nationalist party, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization-Democratic Party for Macedonian National Unity (VMRO-DPMNU), won an inconclusive majority in the elections for a new unicameral assembly, a coalition government was formed comprising VMRO-DPMNU,
ARF and the Communist Party (LCM-PDR). Nikola Kljusev was chosen as a non-partisan prime minister in March after the failure of the elections to produce a clear winner.
On Jan. 25, 1991, the new assembly unanimously adopted a declaration of Macedonia's sovereignty that included a statement of secession from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Kiro Gligorov of the LCM-PDR was elected as the president of Macedonia during the protracted negotiations that preceded the formation of a new government headed by Kljusev. In a Sept. 8, 1991 referendum, 95 percent of eligible voters approved the independence and sovereignty of the Republic of Macedonia. (Many ethnic Albanians abstained from voting.) A month later,
Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, effectively dissolving the Yugoslav Federation.
Through a plebiscite, the Republic of Macedonia was declared an independent and sovereign state.
Despite opposition from ethnic Albanians and the withdrawal of VMRO-DPMNU participation from government, on Nov. 17, 1991, the constitution of the Republic of Macedonia was adopted.
It became effective on Nov. 20, 1991. The new constitution determined the Republic of Macedonia a sovereign, independent, civil and democratic state, and it recognized the complete equality of all Macedonian peoples, including ethnic minorities.
By January 1992, the European Community (E.C., known as the European Union or EU since
1994) acknowledged that Macedonia had fulfilled the requirements for official recognition.
Nevertheless, due to Greek opposition over the use of the name "Macedonia" and the use of an emblem of Alexander the Great on the Macedonian flag, the European Community chose not to recognize Macedonian independence. In July 1992, there were demonstrations by 100,000
Macedonians in the capital over the failure to receive recognition. Coupled with a non-confidence
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In September 1992, Branko Crvenkovski, leader of the Social Democratic Alliance (SDAM, the former LCM-PDR or Communist Party), was appointed prime minister of a new coalition government. Despite Greek objections, Macedonia was admitted to the United Nations under the name "The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia" (FYROM) in 1993. The E.C. (now E.U.) also agreed to conditional recognition, under a name that could be agreed upon by all parties. Full diplomatic relations with a number of nations, such as the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands, followed. The conflict over the name of the country, however, has found no complete resolution to date.
Note on History: In certain entries, open source content from the State Department Background
Notes and Country Guides have been used. A full listing of sources is available in the Bibliography.
Political Conditions
Editor's Note: There is a distinction between the larger historical region referred to as
Macedonia and the contemporary country called the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM). The contemporary FYROM is also to be distinguished from the Greek area of Macedonia (see details below).
In 1991, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) declared its sovereignty, although at the time, it enacted this measure as the Republic of Macedonia. In 1992, in response to Greek objections of the name of the country and the emblem of Alexander the Great on the Macedonian flag, the name of the country was altered to be Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
(FYROM). It was under this name that the country was accepted into the United Nations in 1993.
Meanwhile in 1991, Kiro Gligorov, the head of the Communist Party, was elected as president and the head of state. In 1992, Branko Crvenkovski, the leader of the Communist Party, became prime minister of the country and the head of government. The Communist Party was subsequently reformulated as the Social Democratic Alliance (SDAM).
In 1994, Kiro Gligorov was re-elected president. After legislative elections in which the Social
Democratic Alliance (SDAM) won a majority of seats, Branko Crvenkovski continued as prime minister of a coalition government with the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP).
In 1995, a number of violent acts of resistance, allegedly by ethnic Albanians or extremist Serbs,
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Former Yugoslav Rep. of Macedonia occurred. These included the car bombing of the president, in which Gligorov was seriously injured. Stojan Andov, the head of the National Assembly, functioned as acting president in the ensuing year until Gligorov was able to resume his duties in 1996.
In this way, it appears that although FYROM has avoided much of the violence that has plagued the former Yugoslav republics of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, as well as the Serbian province of Kosovo, ethnic tensions continue to constitute the primary threat to Macedonia's political stability and development. Evidence of the inter-communal strife in FYROM is illustrated not only by incidents such as the aforementioned car bombing of Gligorov, but also by the violent demonstrations involving ethnic Albanians throughout the 1990s.
In 1996, the coalition government of Crvenkovski collapsed due to tensions between the SDAM and the LDP. A new government was formed with Crvenkovski staying on as prime minister.