Annotated Bibliography

Inuit-Centred Curriculum and Teaching Approaches

Frances Abele and Katherine Graham

March 24, 2010

Alaskan Native Knowledge Network. Alaskan Standards for Culturally Responsive Schools. Adopted by the Assembly of Alaska Native Educators. Fairbanks, Alaska: Alaska Native Knowledge Network, 1998.

As part of the Alaska Rural Systemic Initiative, the Alaskan Native Knowledge Network has compiled a comprehensive set of standards for students, educators, curriculum, schools, and communities in rural Alaska. These cultural standards are rooted in the “belief that a firm grounding in the heritage language and culture indigenous to a particular place is a fundamental prerequisite for the development of culturally-healthy students and communities.” These standards are meant to complement, not replace, existing standards set out by the State government. The objective is to foster a connection between learning inside and outside of school; and to teach/learn through local culture rather than about it. The 5 target groups and their associated standards are:

1. Culturally-knowledgeable Students:

  • Are well grounded in the cultural heritage and traditions of their community.
  • Are able to build on the knowledge and skills of the local cultural community as a foundation from which to achieve personal and academic success throughout life.
  • Are able to actively participate in various cultural environments.
  • Are able to engage effectively in learning activities that are based on traditional ways of knowing and learning.
  • Demonstrate an awareness and appreciation of the relationships and processes of interaction of all elements in the world around them.

2. Culturally-responsive Educators

  • Incorporate local ways of knowing and teaching in their work.
  • Use the local environment and community resources on a regular basis to link what they are teaching to the everyday lives of the students.
  • Participate in community events and activities in an appropriate and supportive way.
  • Work closely with parents to achieve a high level of complementary educational expectations between home and school.
  • Recognize the full educational potential of each student and provide the challenges necessary for them to achieve that potential.

3. A culturally-responsive Curriculum:

  • Reinforces the integrity of the cultural knowledge that students bring with them.
  • Recognizes cultural knowledge as part of a living and constantly adapting system that is grounded in the past, but continues to grow through the present and into the future.
  • Uses the local language and cultural knowledge as a foundation for the rest of the curriculum.
  • Fosters a complementary relationship across knowledge derived from diverse knowledge systems.
  • Situates local knowledge and actions in a global context.

4. A culturally-responsive School:

  • Fosters the on-going participation of Elders in all aspects of the schooling process.
  • Provides multiple avenues for students to access the learning that is offered, as well as multiple forms of assessment for students to demonstrate what they have learned.
  • Provides opportunities for students to learn in and/or about their heritage language.
  • Has a high level of involvement of professional staff who are of the same cultural background as the students with whom they are working.
  • Consists of facilities that are compatible with the community environment in which they are situated.
  • Fosters extensive on-going participation, communication and interaction between school and community personnel.

5 A culturally-supportive Community:

  • Incorporates the practice of local cultural traditions in its everyday affairs.
  • Nurtures the use of the local heritage language.
  • Takes an active role in the education of all its members.
  • Nurtures family responsibility, sense of belonging and cultural identity.
  • Assists teachers in learning and utilizing local cultural traditions and practices.
  • Contributes to all aspects of curriculum design and implementation in the local school.

Battiste , Marie Ann “Indigenous Knowledge and Pedagogy in First Nations Education. A Literature review with recommendations” prepared for the National Working Group on Education and the Minister of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Ottawa, ON. 2002.

A comprehensive and practically-minded literature review, followed by twenty-three recommendations that seek to generate action at the federal level with respect to Indigenous educational reform. Part one “clarifies the theoretical frameworks that have been developed to understand Indigenous and Eurocentric ways of knowing” highlighting some of the challenges that the tension between the two bring to the education system in the Canadian context. Eurocentric knowledge has been set up as the binary opposite of indigenous knowledge, where indigenous knowledge (the “other”) is inferior. There has been a trend in the last 40 years toward placing more value on indigenous ways of knowing (this is the “postcolonial” period) although the author acknowledges that this has been more prominent in other countries, such as the USA. This movement has necessitated a rethinking of the conditions for indigenous education. A “transdisciplinary quest” to balance the two ways of knowing is necessary but first, Battiste suggests, there must be more work on understanding indigenous knowledge (recognizing that knowledge is living and is not homogenous across indigenous groups).

Part two examines educational pedagogy, both indigenous and Eurocentric approaches and offers several examples of innovative programming that exists to address the challenge of indigenous knowledge. Indigenous educational pedagogy is primarily based on the understanding that learning (and therefore knowledge) is experiential and personal; “knowledge is not a commodity to be possessed and controlled…but it is a living process to be absorbed…” (p. 15) Knowledge is inextricably linked to language and thus, language must be the primary principle upon which indigenous education plans is built going forward. Battiste’s work shows there are many fundamental differences between Eurocentric and indigenous knowledge. One of particular interest for curriculum development and the importance of language in teaching/learning: in indigenous knowledge, the empirical and the normative are inseparable. In this context, indigenous knowledge presents several goals for educational reform: acknowledging the sacredness of life and experiences; generating hope through connecting with others, generating a meaning of work as a vocation and as a mission of life; to develop an open space in which communities can discover themselves and affirm their heritage.

Berger Paul, and Juanita Ross Epp. "PRACTICES AGAINST CULTURE THAT "WORK" IN NUNAVUT SCHOOLS: PROBLEMATIZING TWO COMMON PRACTICES." McGill Journal of Education 41.1 (2006): Feb 3, 2010.

Building on his 2001 study of teaching practices in Nunavut, Berger and co-author Ross Epp discuss the dangers of using Qallunaat teaching strategies that may well be “effective” but are counter to Inuit culture and tradition. Two specific teaching practices are explored in the article to illustrate the argument: the use of strict discipline codes; and praise and rewards systems. The authors build their argument from the premise that Inuit control over these practices, and the education system in Nunavut more generally, is necessary in order to make “good decisions” and to avoid “practices against culture” that represent the legacy of colonialism and the policy of assimilation, and may be harmful to communities in the long run. Berger and Ross Epp provide context through a brief overview of the history of education in the North, highlighting the differences between traditional Inuit learning strategies (in which education was integrated into every day life and young people learned by watching and imitating their older family members) and EuroCanadian learning strategies (in which young people are segregated from life in the “artificial environment” of schools); and the use of education as tool towards the assimilation of Aboriginal people. Despite the current reality that the education system in Nunavut is still based on western values and practices, there is recognition among many Inuit that in order for young people to succeed in Nunavut, they must have an education. Recognizing that Inuit control over and total reform of the Nunavut education system may take many more years, the authors question whether culturally appropriate education is possible within the framework of a EuroCanadian model. Bicultural education, they stress, must honour local culture and practices. The article gives two examples of teaching/discipline strategies in use in Nunavut today that seem to “work” but that may both be incongruent with Inuit values and traditions. The authors try to show a particular technique may achieve the desired outcome but can be interpreted differently depending on one’s cultural perspective, or may be undesirable and unintended consequences. The potential for the negative impacts of Qallunaat teaching strategies on Inuit students highlight the importance of having more Inuit teachers in Nunavut schools. In the meantime, Berger found that Elder and parental involvement in schools has had a positive impact on finding a cultural balance. Ultimately, the authors conclude that until there is Inuit control over education in Nunavut, teachers and administrators must approach all aspects of teaching from curriculum choices to classroom management and discipline with caution and openness.

Berger, Paul. “Some Thoughts on Qallunaat Teacher Caring in Nunavut.” Journal of Teaching and Learning. 4.2 (2007).

The article is predicated on defining what constitutes ‘caring’ behavior of Qallunaat teachers in the context of working with Inuit, and given differences in ‘caring’ across cultures. Berger contends that ‘true caring’ can only occur when the education system is informed by Inuit, and the teacher is committed to, and an advocate for, Inuit. Author posits a move from a colonial, Qallunaat-based education system to an education system controlled by Inuit, and offers some historical perspective on the imposition of Qallunaat schooling, replacing Inuit traditional ways, negative social and community effects, and attempts to reform the educational system to include Inuit values (IQ), culture, language, and community input. Berger argues that in the current context, true caring is impossible; he offers some ideas for teachers to be ‘caring’, and that true caring will occur after systemic change. His ideas include: advocating for the values of Inuit (becoming un-neutral) as a way of de-colonizing, questioning curriculum and designing materials that enable the expression of Inuit values/culture/language (breaking rules), understanding cultural values that are tied to teaching methods, and adopting (after observation and consideration) more Inuit-centred teaching approaches (accepting learning role in different cultural environment), and studying Inuktitut and learning about Inuit culture and how it is demonstrated in the classroom. These ideas are offered also as policy directions for change at a systemic level

Blesse, Diann S. “Aboriginal Teacher’s Perceptions of Classroom Learning Environments.” Master’s thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, 1997.

Blesse’s study of Aboriginal teacher’s experiences in the classroom (Northwest Territories) finds that they integrate traditional cultural values learned through their primary socialization experiences with their development of classroom learning environments. The classroom environment reflects their culture and compliments community interactions. Their goal is to draw compatibilities between classroom learning and the life learning outside of it. Her study is based on 3 questions:

1. Are there traditional Aboriginal socialization practices that influence Aboriginal teachers’ perceptions, attitudes and choices when developing their classroom learning environments?

2. Is there a connection between Aboriginal teachers’ articulated values and traditional teachings?

3. Which aspects of Aboriginal teachers’ classroom learning environments and the accompanying value-based rationales would they recommend be included in both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal teachers’ training?

Castellano, Marlene Brant, Lynne Davis , and Louise Lahache . Aboriginal Education : Fulfilling the Promise. Vancouver: UBC Press, c2000.

Education is at the heart of the struggle of Canada's Aboriginal peoples to regain control over their lives as communities and nations. Based on hearings and research generated by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP), this collection of articles documents recent progress in transforming Aboriginal education to support self-determination, language revitalization, and cultural maintenance, as well as the institutional and governmental obstacles that continue to impede progress. Contributors emphasize Aboriginal philosophies and priorities in teaching methods, program design, and institutional development. With the exception of the chapter by Sheila Watt-Cloutier, the emphasis in this collection is on First Nations and Metis. The 13 chapters are: "Towards a Shared Understanding in the Policy Discussion about Aboriginal Education" (Frances Abele, Carolyn Dittburner, Katherine A. Graham);"Voices of Winter: Aboriginal Languages and Public Policy in Canada" (Mark Fettes, Ruth Norton); "The State of Aboriginal Literacy and Language Education" (Yvonne Hebert); "Telling Our Own Stories: The Role, Development, and Future of Aboriginal Communications" (Gail Guthrie Valaskakis); "Culturally Negotiated Education in First Nations Communities: Empowering Ourselves for Future Generations" (Brenda Tsioniaon LaFrance); "Honouring Our Past, Creating Our Future: Education in Northern and Remote Communities" (Sheila Watt-Cloutier); "Urban Aboriginal Education: The Vancouver Experience" (Lorna Williams); "The Information Legacy of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples" (Marlene Brant Castellano); "Issues of Pedagogy in Aboriginal Education" (Kathy L. Hodgson-Smith); "Metis Post-Secondary Education: A Case Study of the Gabriel Dumont Institute" (John Dorion, Kwan R. Yang); "First Nations House of Learning: A Continuity of Transformation" (Ethel Gardner); "First Nations-Controlled University Education in Canada" (Eber Hampton); and "Electronic Highways, Electronic Classrooms: Distance Education in Canada" (Lynne Davis). An appendix presents RCAP recommendations regarding education.

Chance, Norman. "Premises, Policies and Practices: A Cross-Cultural Study of Education in the Circumpolar North" In Education in the North - Selected Papers of the First International Conference on Cross-Cultural Education in the Circumpolar Nations and Related Articles, edited by Darnell, Frank, Arctic Institute of North America and University of Alaska (College) 1973

Chance examines the value assumptions and premises that have shaped relations between Northerners and government bodies from contact to the ‘present’ (1973), resulting in exploitation and cultural devaluation. He reviews, briefly, the assumptions and rationales enabling exploitation of Northern Canadian and Alaskan peoples, from religious superiority, to social darwinism, to economic drivers for resources, and government funding for ‘equal’ status. Chance argues that Aboriginal people are falling behind in standard of living, educational achievement, and social and cultural development; this condition is maintained by discrimination, perpetuated inferiority, and a lack of culturally reflective education. He argues for the conference workshops to entail a focus on efforts to restructure the education system to reduce discontinuities in learning, sustain positive parental roles, strengthen students’ self-image and self-esteem, and prepare Aboriginal peoples to be economically and socially competent in dealing with North American institutions. He suggests: a) real Aboriginal representation on school boards and other organizations responsible for policy and content of school programs, b) inclusion of Aboriginal language in primary grades and c) development of effective adult education.

Chance briefly compares Northern Canadian and Alaskan experiences with Native inclusion in Russia – in education and economy -- and variation in Scandinavian approaches to northern education.

Churchill, S. The Education of Linguistic and Cultural Minorities in the OECDCountries. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 1986.

Provides a comprehensive (although summative) report of case studies completed in the OECD countries regarding policy development in the area of the linguistic and cultural minority education, with ample statistical and interview data. The findings show consistent patterns across all the OECD countries throughout the process of developing and reforming education policy for minorities. The focus is on the government “story” rather than the indigenous peoples’ “story.”

Clifton, Rodney A., and Lance W. Roberts. Social psychology dispositions and academic achievement of Inuit and non-Inuit students. Alberta Journal of Educational Research 34, 8 pp. 332-43, 1988.

Using empirical data, this article examines differences between Inuit and non-Inuit students, at the elementary school level, in activism (social attitude), self-concept, and academic achievement. Inuits scored lower in activism and self-concept than non-Inuits. Suggests teachers create personalized classroom environments to positively affect activism and self-concept, and thereby enhancing achievement.

Dicker, Joan, Ewan Dunbar and Alana Johns. Developing Intermediate Language Learning Materials. A Labrador Inuttitut Story Database

This paper describes the collaboration between two linguists and apublic school language teacher in the making of a story database for usein the second language learning of Labrador Inuttitut in Canada. It is an illustration and useful example.

Douglas, Anne S. "There's Life and then there's School". Montréal: McGill University, 1999.

Douglas examines the relationship between the community and school in Arctic Bay (North Baffin Island) from the perspective of the community and illustrates that Inuit have been able to maintain organizing elements of their kinship traditions. However, social and inter-relational experiences learned at school by younger Inuit contradict some of the kinship traditions, and responsibilities that Inuit adults are asked to perform at school impinge on kinship obligations. Douglas’ conclusion is that school, and its socialization processes, increasingly impinges on the values, social relations, and cultural practices that the Inuit have maintained.

Eriks-Brophy, Alice and Crago , Martha B.. Transforming Classroom Discourse: an Inuit Example. Montreal : McGill Univ., School of Human Comm. Dis., 1992

This paper offers case studies on the early years of elementary school whereas many of the other sources on this list focus on the high school level or just on curriculum more broadly.

This paper presents primarily quantitative data regarding forms of classroom discourse and turn allocation that emerged from a larger ethnographic study examining Inuit classroom interactions and discourse patterns in three kindergarten and three first grade Inuit-taught classrooms in three Ungava Bay communities. The focus is on the transformational effects of the incorporation of culturally-congruous social interaction patterns and the promotion of traditional values on these two aspects of Inuit classroom conversations. A model of mainstream classroom interactions based on the work of Mehan (1979) is used as a point of comparison to illustrate the extent to which the transformation of discourse has occurred in these six classrooms.