12
EUROPE AND AMERICA, 1850–1900
TEXT PAGES 344-369
1. List four 19th-century phenomena that the authors believe contributed to the greater consciousness of modernity, “the state of being modern.”
(page 345-346)
a. Industrialization, extensive technological changes
b. Imperialism, increased exposure to other cultures
c. Urbanization
d. Theory of Evolution
What effect did this “Modernist” consciousness have on artists? Artists sought to capture and illustrate the images and sensibilities of the age. (page 346)
PAINTING
REALISM
1. Although hailed as the father of Realism, Courbet did not like to be called a Realist. What can we gather from his statements were his goals as a painter?
Courbet’s goal as a painter was to depict the visible and tangible objects around him. He did not believe in representing abstract, invisible, or imaginary objects. (page 346)
What formal qualities distinguish his work? (page 347)
- subjects presented in a direct manner
- focus on accuracy of depiction
- ordinary subjects
- muted color palette
2. In what type of subject matter did Millet specialize? Images of country life. (page 347)
How was his work viewed by members of the French middle class? The French middle class is not like Millet’s work; they distained it and were suspicious of Millet’s depiction of the poor. (page 348)
3. Although Daumier did many fine paintings, he is primarily known for his
work in the medium of _lithography______. (page 348)
With what type of subject matter was he primarily concerned? Political satire and social commentary (page 348)
4. Le Déjeuner sur l’Herbe (FIG. 12-4), the painting that caused such a scandal at
the Salon des Refusés of 1863, was painted by _Édouard Manet______. (page 349)
Which aspects of the picture shocked the public?
The public was shocked by the nude women in the presence of men clothed in modern attire. They saw the scene as one of promiscuity in the park. (page 349)
What was the artist’s major concern when he painted the work?
Manet was trying to create a synthesis of the history of painting in Le Déjeuner sur l’Herbe. (page 350)
5. What did the public think that Olympia (FIG. 12-5) depicted?
The public believed Olympiawas a depiction of a courtesan or prostitute. (page 350)
What technical features contributed to Manet’s perceived “audacity”?
Olympia stares unabashingly out at the viewer with a direct gaze. Her nudity is also emphasized because she is only wearing jewelry and shoes. (page 350)
6. What is meant by the designation “academic art”?
Academic art consisted of art sanctioned by the art academies. These academic artists followed artistic conventions established and transmitted by the academies. (page 351)
7. What role did the salons play in the artistic life of 19th-century France?
Salons played a central role in the artistic life of 19th-century France. They were the mainstream arena for presenting one’s art to the public. (page 351)
8. In what style did the American Winslow Homer paint? Realism (page 351)
9. How did the American public receive Thomas Eakins’s Gross Clinic (FIG. 12-7)?
The American public rejected Eakins’s brutal realism and rejected his Gross Clinic from the Philadelphia exhibition celebrating the American independence centennial. (page 352)
10. The African-American artist _Henry Ossawa Tanner_ studied with Eakins before moving to Paris. List three characteristics of his style: (page 352)
a. main objects painted with great attention to detail
b. background setting and objects articulated with loose brushstrokes
c. expressive lighting and deep shadows
11. List two concerns that were shared by the artists who formed the PreRaphaelite Brotherhood.
(page 353)
a. Attention to meticulous detail
b. Observation from nature
IMPRESSIONISM
1. List four characteristics of Impressionism.
(page 354)
a. Focus on a single moment in time, based on sensation
b. Sketch-like images; spontaneous, abbreviated
c. Clearly articulated brushstrokes, no attempt at blending colors
d. Shadows articulated with color
2. Name four painters who could be consider to be Impressionists.
(pages 354-357)
a.Monetc. Degas
b.Renoird. Cassatt
3. In what ways does Monet’s Saint-Lazare Train Station (FIG. 12-11) reflect the new urban Paris?
In subject matter? Monet’s Saint-Lazare Train Station focuses on a modern invention of the time, the train. Trains were a recent technology that allowed people to travel faster and more conveniently. He also shows the train station and tall sbuildings in the background. (page 355)
In style? Monet worked in a style that was considered modern. He focused on the energy and vitality found in the train station and articulated it through his visible brushstrokes. (page 355)
4. What types of subjects did Renoir prefer to paint? Images of Parisian leisure activities. (page 355)
5. In what ways does Degas’ work show the influence of photography and of Japanese prints? (page 356)
a. Arbitrarily cut-off figures
b. Asymmetrical, random compositions
c. Blurriness of images and patterns of light splotches
6. What were Mary Cassatt’s favorite subjects?
Images of women and children. (page 357)
7. List three influences seen in ToulouseLautrec’s At the Moulin Rouge (FIG. 12-15) and describe the features that reflect each influence.
(pages 357-358)
a. Impressionism- Degas’ interest in capturing images of modern life
b. Japanese prints- strong line patterns and spatial diagonals
c. Photography- Oblique and asymmetrical compositions
8. Why did Whistler call his paintings “arrangements” and ‘‘nocturnes”?
Whistler’s artistic goal was to create harmonious arrangements of shape and color. Viewers were supposed to react to his work based on the sensation they produced, similar to people’s response to music. Thus, his paintings were titled “arrangements” and ‘‘nocturnes.” (page 358)
POST-IMPRESSIONISM
1. Name four major PostImpressionist painters, noting the aspects of Impressionism that they criticized and how those criticisms were reflected in their work:
a.Vincent Van Gogh (pages 359-360)
Van Gogh did not believe color should be used to represent the natural world. Instead he believed color should be used to express emotions.
b.Paul Gauguin (pages 360-361)
Gauguin did not agree with the Impressionist use of objective representation, nor their use of minutely contrasting hues. Instead, Gauguin believed the artist’s creativity was manifested through a painting’s colors. He also thought color should be expressive.
c.George Seurat (page 362)
Seurat was not interested in the Impressionist’s need to record immediate color sensations. Instead, Seurat focused on a systematic method of organizing the colors used in a painting. He did not blend color, but placed pure color components directly on the canvas, relying on the eye to blend them from a distance.
d.Paul Cézanne (pages 362-364)
Cézanne wanted to paint in a more analytical style than the Impressionists. He also thought the Impressionist’s works lacked form and structure. In his work, Cézanne sought to order the lines, planes, and colors found in nature.
2. For Van Gogh, the primary purpose of color in his paintings was: For Van Gogh, color expressed emotions. (page 359)
3. How did Van Gogh apply paint to his canvas, and what type of effect did his application produce? Van Gogh applied painting thickly to his canvas. Sometimes he directly squeezed paint onto the canvas. His brushstrokes were violently visible and bold. (page 359)
4. How did Gauguin’s use of color differ from Van Gogh’s? Gauguin use of color was flatter than Van Gogh’s. In Gauguin’s paintings, the colors often dissolve into abstract patterns. (page 360)
5. Where did Gauguin spend the last ten years of his life? Tahiti (page 360)
6. The French painter who used the work of color theorists like Chevreul and
Rood to develop a scientifically precise method of applying paint was
_Georges Seurat_____. (page 362)
What technique did he develop for applying color to canvas and what did he call it?
Seurat developed a technique of color application called pointillism or divisionism. This system consisted of a highly organized, systematic application of paint using a new kind of pictorial order based on scientific color theory. Pure color are applied in dots or small daubs. It is only when the viewer sees the painting from afar that the eye blends the colors. (page 362)
7. Who said, “I want to make of Impressionism something solid and lasting like the art in the museums”? Paul Cézanne (page 363)
8. What two roles do color play in Cézanne’s paintings?
(page 364)
a. Color used to create volume
b. Color used to create spatial depth
SYMBOLISM
1. By the end of the 19th century, what major change had occurred in the artist’s vision of reality?
By the end of the 19th century, the artist’s vision of reality was subjective. Reality was based on how the artist perceived it and interpreted it. Also, line, color, and shape were no longer solely used to articulate objects from the visible world, but instead could be used to depict intangible concepts and emotions. (page 364-365)
2. What did the Symbolist artists consider to be their primary task? Symbolists believed their primary task was to portray the inner symbolism or deeper meaning of things that resided beyond the mere surface or fact of an object. (page 365)
3. The major themes in the work of Edvard Munch were: Death and love and the emotions associated with them. (page 365)
FIN DE SIÈCLE
4. List three stylistic characteristics of the work of Gustav Klimt. (page 366)
a. Emphasis on flat pattern
b. Sensual and decadent images
c. Attention to the conflict between the two-dimensional and three-dimensional
What features did his work share with the works of 19thcentury Symbolist painters? The use of color and line for expressive purposes. (page 365)
SCULPTURE
1. What concern did Rodin share with the Impressionists? Rodin was greatly interested in the affect of light on three-dimensional surface. (page 366)
2. What did the commissioners of the Burghers of Calais (FIG. 12-25) find offensive in the work? The commissioners were especially offended because Rodin’s sculpture was not placed on a pedestal. (page 367)
ARCHITECTURE
1. When did Eiffel construct his tower in Paris (FIG. 12-26)? 1889 (page 367)
For what event?For a great exhibition in Paris. (page 367)
2. What event influenced the technique of encasing iron skeletal structure with masonry? A series of disastrous fires in the early 1870s led to the discovery of encasing iron skeletal structure in masonry. (page 367)
3. Which features of Sullivan’s Guaranty (Prudential) building (FIG. 12-27) demonstrate his famous dictum “form follows function?” The regularity of the windows, the imposing scale, and the highly organized plan all are features of the Guaranty (Prudential) building that follow its function as an office building for hundreds of people. (page 368)
4. What sort of forms were preferred by Art Nouveau artists?
Art Nouveau artists preferred curvy, twisting, intertwining forms. (page 368)
Name one architect who worked in the style: Victor Horta (page 368)
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Compare Manet’s Le Déjeuner sur l’Herbe (FIG. 12-4) with Giorgione/Titian’s Pastoral Symphony (FIG. 9-17). In what ways are they similar, and in what ways do they differ? Why do you think the Parisian public was shocked by Manet’s work but considered Giorgione’s work to be a classical masterpiece?
2. What characteristics does Courbet share with the Impressionists and in what ways does his work differ significantly from theirs? Should the Impressionists be considered Realists?
4. Compare the family portraits depicted by Van Eyck (FIG. 8-6), Lippi (FIG. 8-29), Anguissola (FIG. 9-22), Tanner (FIG. 12-8), Cassatt (FIG. 12-14). Discuss the impression each gives of the relationship between the family members and note the formal elements that the artist used to create that effect.
5. Compare Cezanne’s still lifeonFIG. 12-22 with Pieter Claesz in FIG. 10-27. Note differences in composition, treatment of color, painting technique, and distortion of form.
6. Compare Seurat’s ASunday on La Grande Jatte (FIG. 12-20) with Renoir’s Le Moulin de la Galette (FIG. 12-12). What characteristics do the paintings share?
7. Discuss the main contribution made by each of the major PostImpressionists. In what ways are their works a continuation of historical artistic traditions?
8. Discuss the influence of Japanese woodblock prints on late 19th-century French painting. Select from Degas’ Ballet Rehearsal (FIG. 12-13), Cassatt’s TheBath (FIG. 12-14), Toulouse-Lautrec’s At the Moulin Rouge (FIG. 12-15), and Gauguin’s Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (FIG. 12-19). What stylistic features did each artist adopt?
9. In what sense is the slogan “form follows function” accurate or inaccurate as a summary description of the majority of today’s architecture? For examples in answering this question, consider buildings in your own community.
PICTORIAL ANALYSIS
LOOKING CAREFULLY, DESCRIBING, AND ANALYZING
Write at least one page and a half comparing Van Gogh’s Starry Night (FIG. 12-18) with Monet’s Impression: Sunrise (FIG. 12-20). Here are some ideas that might help you with your analysis, but do not be limited by them. First describe all the objects and forms that appear in each painting. Look carefully at the brush strokes of each artist and describe them noting how apparent they are and what sorts of patterns they create; then describe the color that each uses, using the terms hue, intensity, and contrast. Describe the underlying composition structures used by both artists. Summarize by noting how these factors contribute to the different emotional impact.
SUMMARY OF 19th-CENTURY BACKGROUND & STYLES
Fill in the following charts as much as possible from memory, then check your answers against the text in Chapters 11 and 12.
BACKGROUND:Historical People, Events, Ideas, etc.
______
STYLESSTYLISTIC CHARACTERISTICS ARTISTS
RomanticismNeoclassicism
Realism
Impressionism
Post-Impressionism
Symbolism
SUMMARY OF 19th-CENTURY PAINTING
ArtistTypical ExamplesStylistic Characteristics
GoyaCountry:
Géricault
Country:
Delacroix
Country:
Ingres
Country:
Turner
Country:
Constable
Country:
Cole
Country:
Friedrich
Country:
Daumier
Country:
Courbet
Country:
Manet
Country:
Eakins
Country:
Tanner
Country:
Millais
Country:
Monet
Country:
Renoir
Country:
Degas
Country:
Cassatt
Country:
Toulouse-Lautrec
Country:
Whistler
Country:
Van Gogh
Country:
Gauguin
Country:
Seurat
Country:
Cézanne
Country:
Klimt
Country:
Munch
Country:
SUMMARY OF 19th-CENTURY PHOTOGRAPHY
Typical ExamplesStylistic Characteristics
DaguerreCountry:
Nadar
Country:
O’Sullivan
Country:
SUMMARY OF 19th-CENTURY SCULPTURE (Chapter 11 & 12)
ArtistTypical ExamplesStylistic Characteristics
CanovaCountry:
Rodin
Country:
SUMMARY OF 19th-CENTURY ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN (Chapter 11 & 12)
Typical ExamplesStylistic Characteristics
GarnierCountry:
Labrouste
Country:
Paxton
Country:
Horta
Country:
Gaudi
Country:
Eiffel
Country:
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