The Completion of Unification 1860-70

Victor Emmanuel didn’t inspire much patriotism after 1860; his motives were suspect, especially with Piedmontisation, and he couldn’t claim much credit for unification so far. Disillusion set in and patriotic culture declined; even Verdi stood outside politics.

How did Venice and Rome become part of Italy?

Why would taking Venice & Rome be militarily more difficult than taking Sicily and Naples?

1862 Garibaldi’s 1st attempt to take Rome

Rome was seen by many as the natural capital of Italy but it was still occupied by French troops. Garibaldi had not given up hope of uniting it with Italy.

Garibaldi gathered together 3000 volunteers in Sicily and set off for Rome. “Roma o morte” Initially he had Victor Emmanuel’s and the Prime MInister Rattazi’s secret support. They possibly hoped that the idea that Garibaldi was coming would inspire the Romans to rise up in support of Italy, encouraging the French to leave. Italy could then enter Rome to “restore order”.

However the Romans didn’t rise up and the French didn’t leave! This led Rattazzi to change his mind; he didn’t want the French to defeat Garibaldi and he still wanted to preserve the alliance with Napoleon if possible, so he sent the Italian army to stop Garibaldi. The two armies met at Aspromonte; Garibaldi told his men not to fire; Garibaldi was wounded and captured.

1864 Piedmont and France made an agreement:-

  • French troops would withdraw from Rome 1866 (Napoleon found it expensive!)
  • Italy would not attack Rome and would protect her from Garibaldi
  • Napoleon insisted that Italy give up the idea of making Rome the new capital so Italy declared it would move its capital to Florence

This deal was very unpopular in Turin where there were riots in which 23 died.

Venetia 1866

Support for annexation by Italy was vocal in the Austrian province.

  • Despite Austrian propaganda, audiences at operas shouted ‘Verdi’, ‘Verdi’, ostensibly the name of the composer, but all knew that VERDI stood for Vittore Emmanuele Re d’Italia.
  • Verdi’s chorus ‘Va Pensieri’, the ‘Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves’ from ‘Nabucco’ became the unofficial Italian national anthem.

Austro-Prussian War 1866

Bismarck, the Prussian Minister-President, was planning a war against Austria and wanted Italian support to keep Austrian forces tied down on the southern border.

Encouraged by Napoleon, in May 1866, Italy signed a treaty with Prussia. They would attack Austria in the south and receive Venetia if Prussia won.

June Napoleon signed a secret Treaty with Bismarck that they would be neutral in return for Venetia, if Austria was defeated. They would give Venetia to Italy

What would he gain from this? Access p110

Napoleon also made a secret agreement with Austria that France would be neutral and, whatever the outcome, Italy would receive Venetia. Italy knew about this and could therefore not have fought in the ensuing war. Possibly Italy wished to honour their original deal with Prussia; possibly they hoped Prussia might give them Trentino as well (but Prussia was unlikely to do this as it contained Germans)

16th June the Prussians declared war on Austria.

The Italians declared war on Austria (“The Third War of Independence”), but were heavily defeated by smaller Austrian forces in battles on land (Custozza) and at sea (Lissa).

  • Italian generals were not experienced and often got their position through influence at court rather than on merit. (note previous victories won by guerrillas and French)
  • Poor planning and organisation- only 25% troops actually reached front
  • Personal rivalries between officers not least Victor Emmanuel who insisted on taking personal command.
  • Italian conscripts were disunited and unpatriotic; many deserted.
  • Significantly, the Italian Army received no support from the population of Venetia.

But the Prussians defeated the Austrians and the Austrians were forced to hand over Venetia which became part of Italy.

Once again, to the annoyance of liberals, Italian unification had been brought about by foreign intervention. Italy’s military performance was humiliating.

Garibaldi’s 2nd Attempt on 1867

December 1866 French troops left Rome.

October 1867 Garibaldi escaped from house arrest and led his men to Rome. Again he had the secret connivance of the PM who hoped again for a Roman uprising that would invite the Italians in.

But the people of Rome did not rise up and the French returned to protect Rome, with breech-loading rifles. Garibaldi was defeated at Mentana.

Rome 1870

The French garrison had returned to Rome. How could the Italians take it?

Once again, international events helped them.

In 1870, France declared war on Prussia and the French troops were withdrawn from Rome. France was defeated and Napoleon taken prisoner.

September Victor Emmanuel sent a letter to the Pope suggesting that if he gave up his temporal power to Italy, allowing Rome to be the capital, the Italian state would protect the Pope’s spiritual power.

The Pope refused.

The Italian army defeated the Papal troops after a short battle and occupied Rome

The people of Rome “voted” (rigged) to become part of Italy in October and it was immediately proclaimed the new capital.

Italy was now a united country for the first time since the Roman Empire.

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