JSGS Workshop: Writing About Data

JSGS Workshop: Writing about Data

General Information about Data

Data is often best presented in tables and figures.
Tables have parallel and perpendicular lines and can be easily created on the computer.
Figures refer to charts. Common figures are column, line, pie, bar, area, and scatter. These too can be created using the computer.
Figures and tables should be integrated into your paper or report.
They should be referred to before the visual appears.
Your data should tell a story.

Location Statements

Location statements are used to refer to figures and tables and any other visuals in the paper.
A location statement identifies a particular figure or table.

The responses to this question are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 shows the responses to this question.

Highlighting Statements

Highlighting statements can introduce a key point about the information contained in the figure or table. They tell your readers what they should notice about the data. They can point out the story.

From 2000 to 2010, the University of Saskatchewan received higher funding than other post-secondary institutions of comparable size (see Figure 4.2).

Table 3 shows that responses to this question were by no means uniform.

As shown in Table 3, the responses varied.

As indicated in Figure 3.3, high school completion rates of Aboriginal students have declined since 2007 compared with the national average, which has risen during the same period.

Other Points About Visuals

All visuals must be accompanied by the following: a label, title, a caption (for photographs) and a source line.
There are two exceptions. You don’t need to include a source line to report your own original research; you don’t need to provide labels, titles, captions and source lines for photographs and other visuals that are there for decoration.
The source of all unidentified pictures should be acknowledged at the end of your report under the heading, “Sources.” (An exception would be if you have purchased the photos.)

Vocabulary for Writing About Data

Least – the minority of

Majority – more than 50%

Minority – less than 50%

Most – avoid because the meaning is vague. Use “majority” or “plurality” instead, or use a precise figure with the term. E.g., “Most (52%) support the change.”

Plurality – at least one more than any other alternative. E.g., “A plurality of voters supported Hillary Clinton in the U.S. presidential election.”

Proportion- a portion or part in relation to its whole

Rate – a measure, quantity, or frequency typically measured against some other quantity or measure

Ratio – the quantitative relation between two amounts, showing the number of times one value contains or is contained within the other (part to part)

Trend -- a general direction in which something is developing or changing.

Percent–Percent is used with a specific number (“Fifteen percent of the control group responded to drug A.”)

Percentage–Percentage is used without a number (“A small percentage of respondents …”)

Curvilinear – A relationship between two or more variables that is depicted by anything other than a straight line.

Vocabulary for Writing About Trends

Trend / Verb Form / Verb + Prep. / Noun Form / Adjective
Increase / increase, rise, climb, soar, rocket / Increased by
Increasedfrom/to / an increase, a rise, an upward trend, growth / gradual
upward
dramatic,
slight
sudden/steep sharp
overall
Decrease / decrease, decline, fall, drop, plunge, plummet / decreased by
decreased from/to / a decrease/ decline/drop/reduction/ downward trend/ downward tendency / gradual
downward/dramatic
precipitous/sudden
steep /sharp
Steadiness / Is/remain/stay level out, level off, plateau, reach a plateau, steady / steady
constant
stable
consistent
the same
similar
Change / change, fluctuate, vary / change
variation
fluctuation
alteration / fluctuating varying changing
Trend / trend / upward/downward

Numerical Terms Used to Write about Data

Study the table and then look at various numerical terms used to write about the data.

Year / 1995 / 2005
1200 / 1800

The number/figure increased by 600, from 1200 to 1800. (number)
The number/figure increased by half, from 1200 to 1800. (fraction)
The number/figure increased by 50%, from 1200 to 1800. (percentage)
The number/figure increased by 50%, to 1800 from 1200. (percentage)

Now look at the following table and the sentences that follow.

Year / 1995 / 2000 / 2005 / 2010
500 / 1000 / 3000 / 12000

The number/figure increased two-fold (doubled) between 1995 and 2000.
The number/figure increased three-fold between 2000 and 2005.
The number/figure quadrupled from 2005 to 2010.
There was a two-fold increase between 1995 and 2000.
The number/figure rose six-fold between 1995 and 2005.
The number/figure in 2005 was three times the number/figure in 2000.
The number/figure in 2005 was three times that in 2000.
The number/figure in 2005 was three times larger than the figure in 2000.

Finally, look at this table and the sentences that follow:

Year / 1995 / 2000 / 2005 / 2010
1000 / 800 / 400 / 100

Between 1995 and 2000, the number/figure fell by one-fifth.
From 2000 to 2005, the number/figure dropped/decreased/declined by half.
By 2010, the number/figure had fallen to 100.
The number/figure in 2010 was one-tenth the 1995 total.

Sources

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles, Volume Two. (1973). Oxford UK: Oxford University Press, pp. 1688, 1750.

Graphs: The Vocabulary of Numbers. (n.d.) Write Fix. Retrieved from

Atkinson, M.M. & McNutt, K. (March, 2011) Saskatchewan’s Regional Colleges: Towards a New System. Regional Colleges Review Final Report.

Two Figures and Accompanying Data Commentary

Model Data Commentary

Figures 1 and 2 show the employment rates in 2002 and in 2012 for male and female workers 55 and older with less than high school and a university degree, respectively, in the four Western Canadian provinces compared to the Canadian average. As can be seen, for both older male and female workers, the employment rates for those with a university degree are higher than rates for those with less than high school, irrespective of geographic location and year. Specifically, employment rates of older male workers with a university degree are approximately double those for workers with less than high school, while rates for older female workers with a university degree are almost four times higher than those of their less educated counterparts.

The data suggest that older adults with a university education are considerably more likely to secure employment than those who have not completed high school. Both the federal and provincial governments planning for the future might take note of these data. With the upcoming mass retirement of the baby boom generation, governments might well consider creating incentives to keep older workers in the labour market. One idea would be to market part-time university education to women in their forties who have not completed high school so that within seven to ten years, they may be prepared to take on skilled work. Proposals such as these might attract older workers, a cohort that will be needed to round out the labour force in the future.

Source: These figures were prepared by Debora Senger, a former graduate student at the Johnson Shoyama School of Public Policy. The figures were from The WesternPolicy Analyst, Vol. 4, Issue 3, pp. 4-5. Used with permission.

Writing about Numbers

There are many different styles for writing about numbers. Here is one convention:

Write numbers one through nine in words. Use digits for all other numbers.

E.g., The participants were divided into two groups.

E.g., The mice were injected with the drug, and 15 were selected for observation.

An exception to the above rule is if you have to use two related numbers in one sentence, and one is greater than nine, use digits for both.

E.g. All 23 students voted: 14 were opposed and 9 in favour.

A second exception to the rule is if you have to use two related numbers in one sentence, and one is less than nine, use words for both.
A third exception to the rule is percentages. Usually, in a technical document you use digits and the % sign for all the percentages, except when the percentage starts a sentence. (Use the percentage sign with digits and the word percent with numbers written as words.)
A fourth exception occurs when numbers less than and greater than nine are next to each other. In this case, write one in words and one in numerals.

E.g., We removed 30 five-month old mice from the cage.

Do not start a sentence with a digit. Write the number in words or rephrase the sentence.

E.g. Twenty-three students voted in the election.

E.g. Twenty-three percent of the student body voted in the election.

Source: Purdue Online Writing Lab. (2016). Writing numbers section. Lafayette, IN: Purdue University. Retrieved from

Writing about Data: Comparatives and Superlatives

For one- and two-syllable adjectives and one-syllable adverbs, add the ending –er for the comparative and –est for the superlative (for words ending in –y, change –y to –iand add –eror -est).

Adjective/Adverb / Comparative form / Superlative form
high / higher / highest
low / lower / lowest
fast / faster / fastest
steady / steadier / steadiest

For three- or more syllable adjectives and for two- or more syllable adverbs, use more or less to form the comparative and most or least to form the superlative.

Adjective/Adverb / Comparative form / Superlative form
evident / more/less evident / the most/least evident
transparent / more/less transparent / the most/least transparent
remarkable / more/less remarkable / the most/least remarkable
prevalent / more/less prevalent / the most/least prevalent
slowly / more/less slowly / the most/least slowly

Some adjectives and adverbs have irregular comparative and superlative forms.

Irregular adjective/adverb / Comparative form / Superlative form
good / better / best
bad / worse / worst
far / farther / farthest
well / better / best
little / less / least
many/much / more / most

Using Comparative Forms in a Sentence

The comparative adjective in a sentence with an intransitive verb

First part of comparison (subject) / Verb / Adverb or adverb phase / Comparative adjectives / Adjective phrase offering further information / Than/ as / Second part of comparison (long form) / Second part of comparison (short form)
The median wage of a college graduate / is / now / 32 percent higher / than / the median wage of a high school graduate. / that of a high school graduate.
A college graduate’s lifetime earnings / are / three times higher / than / the lifetime earnings of a high school graduate. / those of a high school graduate.
The number of women with a university degree / is / still / lower / than / the number of women without a university degree. / that of those without degrees.
Eating disorders / are / twice as prevalent / in middle- class families / as / (are) eating disorders in poor families. / (they are) in poor families. *
The dropout rate / is / higher / among male students / than / the dropout rate among female students. / (itis) among female students. *

The comparative form with an intransitive verb and an infinitive

First part of comparison / Verb / Comparative adjectives / Infinitive / Adjective/noun/phrase / Than/as / Second part of comparison
Anorexia nervosa / is / more likely / to become / chronic / than / (is) Bulimia. *
Nursing graduates / are / three times more likely / to find / an entry level position that pays more than $40,000 per year / than / (are) English graduates. *

The comparative form with a passive infinitive

Subject / Verb / Comparative adjectives / Passive infinitive / First part of comparison / Than/as / Second part of comparison
Alligators / are / far more likely / to be found / in open lake water / than / (they are) in salt water.*
Moose / are / twice as likely / to be seen / on the road at dawn / as / (they are) at sunset.*

The comparative form with an infinitive and a different word order than in #2 and 3

First part of comparison (subject) / Verb / Comparative adjectives / Than/as / Second part of comparison / Infinitive / Complement /phrase
Anorexia nervosa / is / more likely / than / Bulimia / to become / chronic.
Nursing graduates / are / three times more likely / than / English graduates / to find / an entry level position that pays more than $40,000.

The comparative form with a transitive verb and direct object or adverb

First part of comparison / Adverb/
Verb / Comparative adverbs / Object / Comparative adjective / Phrase / Than/as / Second part of comparison
Male lawyers / earn / almost / 25 percent / more / than / (do) female lawyers (do).*
Young women / earn / as much / money is implied / as / (do) their male counterparts (do). *
Those with professional degrees / earn / 20 percent more / money is implied / than / (do) those with doctorate degrees (do). *
Conversing on a cell phone / produced / significantly lower / success rates / than / (did) listening to music (did). *
Teenagers / typically require / twice as much / sleep / as / (do) older adults (do). *
The French / consume / more than twice as much / red wine / as / (do) the Spanish (do.)*

* The words in the brackets can be deleted. Most style guides recommend keeping “is, “are,” “was” or “were” OR “does,” do” or “did” in the second part of a comparative sentence.