Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe 1920-1945

Dictatorship and Democracy in Europe 1920-1945

Key concepts

A key to developing understanding will be learning to identify the main issues through a familiarity with key concepts:

•Inflation; the Depression; protectionism; collectivisation; communism; fascism; dictatorship; personality cult; totalitarianism; democracy; propaganda; anti-Semitism; herrenvolk; Reichskirche; the Holocaust; collaboration; resistance; lebensraum; blitzkrieg.

Key personalities

In their study of the topic, students should become aware of the role of certain key personalities. Students should be aware of the contribution of the following to the developments listed under the elements above:

•J.M. Keynes; Adolf Hitler; Benito Mussolini; Vladimir Ilyich Lenin; Josef Stalin; Winston Churchill; Joseph Goebbels; Leni Riefenstahl; Bing Crosby; Charlie Chaplin.

Case studies

Stalin's show trials, 1936-1938

The Jarrow March, 1936

The Nuremberg Rallies

Apart from 2007 and 2011 (Jarrow), NONE of these case studies have been asked DIRECTLY as a question BUT there has been at least one question every year in which a case study could have been used as the basis for an answer.

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PAST QUESTIONS

2006

• During the inter-war period, what conditions in Europe contributed to the growth of fascist regimes?
• To what extent did Stalin transform the society and economy of the Soviet Union?
• How successfully did Britain deal with the social and economic problems of the inter-war period?
• What developments took place in the technology of warfare during the period, 1920 - 1945?

2007

• What problems did the Third Republic of France encounter between 1920 and 1940?
• What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany between 1933 and 1939?
• What were the causes and the consequences of the Jarrow March, October, 1936?
• How significant was the role played by the Soviet Union in World War II?

2008

• What did Lenin and Stalin contribute to communism in Russia?
• Which had the greater social and economic problems during the inter-war years, Britain or Germany? Argue your case,

referring to both countries.

• What contribution did Joseph Goebbels and/or Leni Riefenstahl make to Nazi propaganda?
• What was the impact of World War II on the civilian population of Britain and/or France?

2009

• Why was France unstable during the period, 1920-1940?
• How did dictators use propaganda and/or terror to maintain their power?
• What were the main social and economic challenges facing Britain, 1920-1945?
• What did you learn about World War II from your study of one or more of the following: wartime alliances;

collaboration/resistance; technology of warfare?

2010

• How successfully did German governments deal with the social and economic problems of the period, 1920-1939?
• How effective were the internal and external policies of Josef Stalin?
• What were the main developments in church-state relations under Hitler and Mussolini?
• What was the impact of Anglo-American popular culture on Europe, 1920-1945?

2011

• To what extent did Lenin and/or Stalin bring about social and economic change?
• How effective were the internal and external policies of Benito Mussolini?
• What were the main characteristics of the Nazi state in Germany, 1933-9?
• What did one or more of the following achieve in Britain during the period 1920-1945: J.M. Keynes; those who took part

in the Jarrow March, October 1936; Winston Churchill?

PERSPECTIVE: Politics and administration

•Origins and growth of the fascist regimes in Europe; Nazi state in peace and war.

•Communism in Russia: regimes of Lenin and Stalin; Stalinist state in war and peace.

•France: the Third Republic, 1920-1940, and the Vichy state.

•Wartime alliances, 1939-1945.

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What were the reasons for the origins and growth of the fascist regimes in Europe, 1920-33?

1. Introduction:In post-war Europe, numerous crises threatened the stability that was promised by the Paris Peace Treaties in 1919. Ranging from economic depression, social unrest and the disillusionment of war veterans to rising unemployment and falling living standards, these problems meant that the parliamentary democracies which inherited them became more unpopular. Ordinary citizens became impatient with the slow pace of recovery. In this chaotic environment, promises of strong leadership in government, an end to economic problems, nationalistic and foreign policy triumphs were well received. Allied to threats of mob violence and use of propaganda, these factors combined to aid the growth of the fascist regimes in Europe between 1920 and 1933.

2. Failure of Parliamentary Democracy:One main reason for the rise of fascist regimes was the failure of parliamentary democraciesto provide a successful alternative. In Germany, various armed uprisings from the ‘left’ (the Spartacist Revolt of 1919 by the Berlin Communists) and the ‘right’ (the 1920 Kapp Putsch) put the Weimar Republic under pressure, as these reflected social unrest among the working classes. For example, the 1920 Putsch originated from right-wing Freikorps members protesting against demobilisation. Also, the Weimar government was associated with the‘Diktat’ of Versailles and the degrading aspects of the settlement (reparations, loss of territories), especially Weimar acceptance of the war-guilt clause, article 231. This was the basis for Hitler’s attacks and gained the Nazis much support.

Similarly, in Italy, weak governments between 1918-1922 meant that Mussolini’s fascists gained support from a scared population. Demobilisation mean there were millions of ex-soldiers out of work. Also, society was under threat from widespread crime. The success of the Bolshevik revolution encouraged communists to seize land and factories. The failure of Prime Minister Giolitti to deal with these problems led to fears of a Communist revolution in the minds of the middle- and upper-classes. While two parties, the Socialists and the Catholic Party, emerged in Italy after the war, neither was able to provide stable government. For example, between 1918 and 1922, there were five coalition governments with numerous reshuffles. Thus, the failure of democratic governments inItalian/German politics led to a desire for strong leaders likeMussolini and Hitler to replace them.

3. Impact of World Economic Crisis: Many European countries were devastated by the impact of the global economic crises of the early 1920s and the Wall Street Crash. In Italy, inflation rose by 500% between 1914 and 1920 while the country was crippled by strikes, food riots and social discontent in the aftermath of World War One. In Germany, following relative prosperity in the 1920s, the 1929 Wall Street Crash destroyed the demand for German goods. The fragile economy collapsed and unemployment in Germany rose to 6 million by January 1933. The reparations debt of6.6 billion pounds was crippling while inflation was at ludicrous levels throughout this period. In response, strong leaders who promised employment through rearmament and conscription created a morale-boosting militaristic atmosphere. Mussolini and Hitler promised to supervise industry closely (but allowed industrialists like Alfred Krupp make huge profits). Both the Blackshirts and the Nazi Party introduced policies of self-sufficiency in food (autarky) while the promised modernisation and public works programmes would provide badly needed employment, especially in the construction of the autobahnen and autostrada(national road networks). These economic policies were, in many cases, superficial and unfulfilled but itgained the fascist regimes in Italy and Germany support and led to their growth and electoral successes.

4. Paramilitary Violence: The use of violence was also a key factor in the growth of fascist regimes in Europe between 1920 and 1933. In Germany, the Sturmabteilungen (SA) were a paramilitary group consisting of assorted thugs, discontented soldiers and ex-convicts recruited by the Nazi party. Since their foundation in 1921, their purpose was to provide ‘support’ at meetings and annual rallies (Reichparteitag). They also disrupted opposition meetings and speeches. They got the nickname ‘Brownshirts’ from their uniform. However, the real instrument of political violence and terror was the Schutzstaffel (SS) or ‘guard squadrons’ (est. 1925) who were more disciplined than the SA. The success of the SS was due partly to the organisational qualities of Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler. Auxiliary organisations such as the Geheimestaatspolizei (Gestapo) or ‘state police’, est. 1933, helped to eliminate anti-Nazi supporters.Similarly, in Italy, Mussolini tightened his control with the aid of his ‘Blackshirts.’ Their mixture of speeches and mob violence led to a hardcore group of fanatical support, which grew steadily. Ex-soldiers, anti-communists and middle-class professionals flocked to its ranks. By 1922, there were over a quarter of a million members of the Fascio di Combattimento. After 1922, the Blackshirts became the state militia– Volunteer Militia for National Security or MVSN– with responsibility for imposing public order, showing how significant the use of violence was in the growth of fascist regimes.

5. Propaganda: The fascist regimes in Germany and Italy recognised the power of propaganda and media manipulation to increase support from their inception. Dr Joseph Goebbels was made the Propaganda chief of the Nazi Party in 1928. He famously stated “Any lie frequently repeated will ultimately gain belief.” By Goebbels’s clever and manipulative use of the media, particularly newspapers such as Der Angriff (‘The Attack’), Hitler’s rivals were destroyed inside and outside the party. Youth movements such as the Hitlerjugend (Hitler Youth, 1926) and the Bund Deutscher Madchen (League of German Maidens, 1928) created a future generation of supporters while adding to Hitler’s status as a cult figure. This was reinforced by the use of uniforms, salutes and mass meetings. Of course, Hitler’s qualities as an outstanding public speaker were central to this growth in popularity. The party organised public spectacles such as the Nuremburg rallies to illustrate the greatness of Germany and Hitler, as well as aiding thegrowth of the fascist regime.

Similarly, a Mussolini personality cult was at the centre of the Fascist propaganda campaign. He was depicted as a superman- an Italian slogan at the time was ‘Mussolini ha sempre ragione’ (Mussolini is always right). The historian Denis Mack Smith wrote that Mussolini’s ‘...most important quality was that of being a stupendous poseur. His mixture of showmanship and vulgarity appealed to the common people.’ Mussolini used such propaganda (newsreels, posters and newspapers such as Il Popolo d’ltalia) to foster the growth of fascism and his own popularity. Like Germany, the youth of Italy were key targets in fascist propaganda. It was compulsory to join a Fascist youth organisation such as the Sons of the She-Wolf, the Balilla and the Avantguardisti while in schools, fascist text-books told how fascism saved Italy from communism. Therefore, propaganda was central to the growth of the fascist regimes.

6. Aggressive Foreign Policy: Hitler and Mussolini, as with most fascist leaders, believed that the totalitarian state was involved in an eternal ‘struggle’ against enemy forces, whether in political, social or economic terms. In the area of foreign policy, the fascist regimes of Hitler and Mussolini found huge support. The punitive aspects of Versailles gave Hitler the opportunity of declaring the entire Diktat as unfair. The German nation eagerly supported the Nazis’ idea of ‘Dolchstoss’ (‘stab in the back’) by the Weimar government. Hitler and the Nazis used this myth of the ‘enemy within’ to bolster the confidence of the German people and gain support in the 1920s for reclaiming the lands lost by Versailles – the Saarland, Rhineland, Anschluss with Austria, the Sudetenland. It contributed to the popularity of Nazi policies: the formation of Greater Germany and lebensraum (living room) for the German population.

Similarly, Mussolini’s foreign policy promises won huge support for his fascist regime. The populist aims were simple: to win new territories and prestige for Italy. By careful manipulation of public opinion at home, Mussolini gained approval for opportunist moves against weak opponents abroad (e.g. Abyssinia, Albania, Corfu), In spite of Italy’s lack of industrial resources, triumphs such as the 1923 Lausanne Conference won Rhodes and the Dodecanese Islands. Between 1922 and 1924, commercial treaties were signed with many of Italy’s European neighbours. The signing of the 1925 Locarno Pact with France and Britain guaranteed Germany’s western borders and projected the image of Italy as a major ‘player’ on the international stage. Overall, the fascist regimes gained support by their nationalistic policies and promises of foreign expansion.

7. Conclusion

The origins and growth of the fascist regimes in Europe, whether in Salazar’s Portugal or Mussolini’s Italy, Hitler’s Germany or Franco’s Spain, were due to a variety of factors. The weaknesses of post-war governments, the impact of the global economic depression on civilian populations, the willingness of democratic societies to impart power to extreme political groups, the appeal of violence and aggressive nationalism, the fear of communism- all played their part in the growth of fascism. The lack of a long or lasting tradition of democratic government in either Italy or Germany – allied to the above factors – meant that they were vulnerable to the promises of stability and prosperity made by Hitler and Mussolini. Eventually, it was these ‘promises’ which resulted in the totalitarianism of Mussolini and Hitler’s regimes and the rigid control of all aspects of life in these states.

What were the main developments in Vichy France during the period, 1940-1944?

1. Introduction

France declared war on Germany on 3 September, 1939. The Germans launched their blitzkrieg attack on Western Europe on 10 May, 1940. The French Army collapsed after the Germans overcame the defences of the Maginot Line. The French government signed the armistice and surrendered on 22 June 1940. France: divided into occupied and unoccupied zones. Germany occupied all the north and west of France. Rest of the country administered by Marshal Phillippe Pétain as Chief of State and Pierre Laval as head of government from their capital at Vichy. Pétain blamed France’s defeat on the weakness of the Third Republic during the 1930s. Other members of the Vichy administration such Josef Darnand were strongly supportive of Nazi policies, particularly their anti-Semitism. The Vichy government thought that collaboration with Nazi Germany was the best long-term strategy for protecting France’s position in the new Europe which they thought would be dominated by Hitler’s Thousand Year Reich. Since 1945, the phrase ‘les années noires’ (‘the black years’) has been used to describe the years of Vichy rule.

2. Anti-Semitic legislation

Racist laws created by Pétain's government (Statut des Juifs) of October 1940. All French Jews were registered by the French police.All foreign Jews residing in France were sent to Germany. There was a curfew placed on Jews and restricions on movement. A yellow Star of David had to be worn at all times. Jews were forbidden to go out in public and were restricted to end carriages on trains. The Vichy government deported 76,000 Jews to German extermination camps. During the Vel'd'Hiv raid in 1942, nearly 13,000 Jews were arrested and sent to the concentration camps. These extra arrests were not required by the Gestapo. Source of on-going controversy in French academic debate; fewer French Jews killed than in other countries but Vichy government was fully complicit in Nazi atrocities. Still viewed as the most shameful episode in French history.

3. State Collaboration

The Free French forces led by Charles De Gaullewere the main political group to oppose Vichy. De Gaulle based HQ in London and Algiers. Civil war between the French Resistance and French pro-Nazi groups. Pétain and Laval- ‘reasons’ for state collaboration: - hoped for the return of over 1.5 million prisoners of war- less money to be paid for France’s ‘war indemnity’- hoped that the ‘guarantee of sovereignty’ would be observed by Germany- full co-operation’ already agreed under Article 3 of Armistice Convention- German authorities had a veto on any Vichy law or policy- Vichy officials tried to win favour with Germany by applying Nazi laws (anti-Semitic legislation).

4. Germany and Vichy

Senior Nazi officials treated Vichy with disdain as a defeated and cowardly nation. Herman Göring, Hitler’s second-in-command, saw Vichy France as a huge source of raw materials, manufactured goods and labour to be exploited for the benefit of the Third Reich. Vichy’s treatment was seen as justified after years of German humiliation under the Treaty of Versailles.Josef Goebbels, Minister for Propanganda, took advantage of the situation; systematic humiliation was a warning to all occupied countries. To the German military, Vichy’s collaboration meant that France was now out of the war and required less Nazi resources to administer. N.B. Contrary to the claims of its authorities, Nazi Germany did not view Vichy as an ‘ally’ or even as an independent fascist state.