Department of Irrigation, Government of Sindh, Pakistan
Indus Consortium, Pakistan
Water Resources Management and Development in Sindh, Pakistan
Part–II: Key Policy Issues
Department of Irrigation
Government of Sindh, Pakistan
Indus Consortium, Pakistan
September2015
Dr. Shahid Ahmad 1
Department of Irrigation, Government of Sindh, Pakistan
Indus Consortium, Pakistan
Water Resources Management and Development in Sindh – Key Policy Issues
1.The Context
1.1.Physiography and socio-economics
The province of Sindh is located in the south-east of Pakistan and its geographical area is 140914 km2. It can be divided into four topographical regions: a) Kirthar Range to the west; b) a central alluvial plain in the middle, through which the Indus River flows; c) a desert belt to the east; and d) Indus Delta to the south.
Theeconomy of Sindhis the2nd largestof all the provinces ofPakistan. Much ofits economy is influenced by theeconomy of Karachi, capital of the province and also the largest city and economic capital of the country. Sindh remarkably has a high GDP[1] per capita of US$ 1,400 in 2010 which is 1.33 times the national average. Currently, the Pakistan per capita GDP in 2014 is US$ 1335 that means Sindh may be having around US$ 1575 per capita GDP. Historically, Sindh's contribution to Pakistan's GDP has been from 30 to 33%. Its share in the service sector has ranged from 21 to 28% and in the agriculture sector from 21 to 28%.
1.2.Water entitlements and water budget
Canal water entitlements for the province of Sindh, as per Pakistan Water Apportionment Accord of 1991, are 48.76 MAF[2]. Further allocations for the Kharif and Rabi seasons are 33.94 and 14.82 MAF, respectively. The median annual canal diversions in post-Tarbela period (1976-2013) are 42.11 MAF, with further distribution in the Kharif and Rabi seasons of 28.48 and 13.63 MAF, respectively.
Water conveyance efficiency in canal commands is around 45.5% assuming canal conveyance efficiency (Main and Distributary Canals) of 70% and watercourse conveyance efficiency of 65%. This leaves 19.16 MAF available at the farm gate.Annual groundwater abstractions are 5.0 MAF. Total surface and groundwater available at farm gate is 24.16 MAF. The contribution of groundwater to total water available at the farm gate is 21%, which is increasing and tripled in the last 15 years.The field application efficiency is 75% in the lower Indus basin, which leaves 18.12 MAF available for crop consumptive use. Thus, overall irrigation efficiency for canal irrigation system is 34%, whereas groundwater irrigation efficiency is 75%.
Canal irrigation water is provided to farmers through a continuous-flow and fixed-rotation irrigation system, which is quite rigid, and it can’t meet crop water needs at peak demand. Furthermore, due to inefficient irrigation system, farmers at tail are facing difficulty in having access to canal water, and thus farmers have started installing tubewells. Most of lift irrigation schemes managed by public-sector are non-functional, due to deferred maintenance and reduction in subsidies on electric tariff.
Aquifers in the Indus basin are largely recharged through canal irrigation system and supplies; and minor recharge is from rivers, in addition to rainfall. Therefore, groundwater can’t be considered as an additional resource in terms of water budget for the province, because whatever we lose in the Indus basin irrigation system is drawn back for utilization at the expense of energy and quality. Therefore, while developing water budget, we must consider beneficial use of canal water in terms of crop evapotranspiration, and rest is its contribution to groundwater – important to note that it is by default and not by design. That’s why it resulted in high water table in 85% area of canal commands after the monsoon season. Twin menace of waterlogging and salinity in 85% of canal command area of the Indus basin resulted in economic loss of 30% to the contribution of agriculture in the provincial GDP.
1.3.Irrigated area and water availability
Total irrigated area in the province is 3.6 million ha (8.89 million acres) during 2012-13 using water available from canal and groundwater resources, as per Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan of 2012. However, the canal command area in Sindh is 5.0 million ha (12.35 million acres) using canal water availability of 19.16 MAF at the farm gate. The canal water availability at farm gate is 1.55 acre feet per acre using the CCA[3], almost 17% higher than Punjab, which is equivalent to achieve cropping intensity of 150% under optimal conditions in the province. However, farmers in some of the canal commands in Tando Allah Yar are getting cropping intensity of 175% using efficient irrigation practices along with supplemental irrigation from tubewells.
The canals were designed to meet crop water requirement with a design cropping intensity of 60-70%, which has increased to almost 125% in most of the canal commands. Some of the small farmers are getting even cropping intensity of 200%. There is a strong relationship of cropping intensity with the farm size. The smaller farmers are getting much higher cropping intensity from that of large farmers. The small farmers have to feed the family and that forces them for self-cultivation with higher cropping intensity to maximize their net income.
1.4.Waterlogging and salinity
Waterlogging is a serious concern as most of canal commands are facing problems of waterlogging during the Kharif season especially in rice grown areas or inadequate drainage due to fine-textured soils and flat topography. High water table is also contributing towards salinity because of higher evaporation of moisture from soil surface with net upward movement of water in fallow fields. Currently, 85% of canal command area suffers from high water table during the wet years and in the Kharif season. Salinity is another major concern. Fallowing of fields and aridity are resulting in evaporation from soil surface and accumulation of salts in the surface layer. Farmers during dry years supplement their canal water shortages with saline or saline-sodic groundwater, which is further deteriorating soil health and leaching contributes salts in to the aquifer. Currently, 61% of canal commands’ area is facing problems both in terms of surface salinity and profile salinity.
1.5.Groundwater
In the canal command areas, closer to recharge sources, a thin layer of freshwater is available, which can be skimmed using skimming well technology. For situation prevailing in the province, dugwell is a best skimming well technology, as digging can be made within fresh groundwater zone, even patches of poor quality groundwater can be blocked through concrete lining. However, no effort has been made in the development of fresh groundwater in the canal commands. This is important because managing an efficient drainage system in a flat topography is a puzzle when O&M[4] budget is insignificant. The socio-economic development in the province was largely due to the major contribution of canal water – almost 80% of total water available at the farm gate.
Currently, there are around 95921 tubewells in the province and their number is increasing. According to some of the estimates, current investment on private tubewells is around Rs. 14.4 billion (as per 2015 estimates) assuming unit tubewell cost of Rs. 150000, whereas annual benefits in the form of agricultural production are of many-fold higher than the investment.The indiscriminate and un-regulated development and abstraction of groundwater has started showing stress on aquifer in areas outside the canal commands resulting in lowering of water table, deterioration of groundwater quality in some parts of province due to mixing of marginal quality groundwater in to freshwater zone, and depletion at a rapid rate in certain areas. The best examples of acute depletion of groundwater are in districts of Jamshoro, Tharparker, Dadu, Karachi, etc.
The fresh groundwater resource in areas outside the canal commands (Jamshoro, Dadu, Tharparker, Sanghar, etc.) has to be considered in the context of inter-generational equity and any excessive abstractions will result in serious issues related to access of desired quantity and quality of groundwater for future generations. The groundwater has to be seen as a trust, where abstractions and recharge both have to be seen together. Otherwise, balance of this trust will be disturbed. Also important to note that once aquifer is depleted it takes centuries to recharge in the arid zones. The simple principle is that we can’t recharge at a speed we discharge because of restrictions for movement of water.
Currently, groundwater is ‘No Body Business’. No one regulates this resource. No one is involved in considering it as a resource of high value and having ownership of it. It is now considered a free gift from god, which anyone, at any place and of any quantum can use it without considering it as a finite resource. Policy, regulatory and institutional mechanisms are also inadequate and institutions are incapacitated.
1.6.Wastewater disposal
Another serious concern is disposal of untreated domestic and industrial effluents, which are contributing in deteriorating quality of canal water. We have to keep in mind that once canal water is polluted there is no way to clean it, looking at quantum of water. The microbiological, bacterial and heavy metals are serious concerns in domestic and industrial effluents. The canal water during the Rabi season is not safe for drinking due to reduced river flows, and poor segment of society can’t afford to purchase bottled water for drinking.
1.7.Institutional reforms
The institutional reforms in the Indus basin canal commands are still in infancy. The FOs[5]are not yet fully functional and the reforms have been introduced in 3 AWBs[6]. In rest of the AWBs, the canals are still being managed by SID[7] under the Sindh Irrigation Act of 1879. Thus, there are two parallel systems in practice within SID for the management of canal irrigation system. Rather major part of canal system is being operated by SID. The FOs are still not capacitated. The election of FOs is also not as per clause of the SWMO[8] 2002. There is a need to evaluate success and failures of reforms and then take policy decision for further adoption and making these reforms more effective. The dual system of managing canals within and outside the AWBs will not lead the province anywhere. Decision has to be taken which support further reforms in all the canal commands of the province.
1.8.O&M budget
The O&M budget provided to SID for the canal irrigation system, flood control, drainage and small dams is inadequate. The recovery of Abiana is contributing only 20% to the O&M cost of the canal irrigation system. This resulted in deferred maintenance and farmers are facing in-equity in distribution of water. The cost of assessment of Abiana is high and rates of Abiana are low for all sub-sectors of water use. Punjab and KPK[9] has already adopted a flat rate system instead of assessment with an objective to reduce the concealment of Abiana and eliminate the cost of assessment. The cost of Abiana assessment and recovery may exceed the actual amount of Abiana collected. This needs a study to verify the current situation of net income from Abiana recovery.
1.9.Prioritization and sequencing of policy issues
Traditionally, the analysis of policy issues for the water sector is made without considering any framework, which later on can be used for the formulation of policy reforms. Therefore in this paper a concept of prioritization of policy issues and then sequencing of issues within the broad key policy issues. Based on the analysis of policy issues, four key policyissues have been identified: a) water governance; b) management of water quantity; c) protection of water quality; and d) management of water dependent ecosystems.
Considering the context, the details of the four key policy issues related to water resources management and development in Sindh are presented in the following sections. Within each of the category of key policy issue, the issues are sequenced so that appropriate policy reforms can be designed in a sequenced manner also.
2.Key Policy Issues
The four key policy issues related to water resources management and development are identified covering: a) water governance; b) management of water quantity; c) protection of water quality; and d) management of water dependent ecosystems (Figure 1).
2.1. Water Governance
2.1.1. The context
Water governance in the province is weak in many respects covering aspects of indiscipline, lawlessness and break of communication system for O&M of canal irrigation system. The political interference has further weakened the water governance at the canal command level. The direct outlets are being sanctioned; transfer of staff is being made without considering merit; concealment of Abiana and the reduced recovery of Abiana are all examples of political interference and weak governance.
The farmers at the tails are not receiving their due share of water and their lands are subject to further salinization due to the fallowing of lands and accumulation of salts in the surface soils. The Warabandi is a system of distribution of water on time equity basis and deterioration of local water governance has affected the operation of the canal system to the extent that provision of canal water to the tail-enders as per their allocations is adversely affected. The Warabandi formula is based on the assumption that there are no water conveyance losses in earthen channels, which is completely a false assumption.
Figure 1: Key policy issues of water resources management and development in Sindh
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The institutional reform process for the three AWBs has been introduced satisfactorily and the desired autonomy has been given to SIDA[10] as full time Managing Director has been appointed. This process is much better introduced in Sindh compared to Punjab where Secretary is the administrative head of both PID[11] and PIDA[12]. Thus no autonomy is given to PIDA in Punjab.
The institutional reforms process is not implemented in letter and spirit, as no institutional reforms have been introduced at the level of SID and out of 16 canals only 3 have been given to SIDA. SID is still operating 13 canals in the province. This means two different levels of water governance are being followed in Sindh. Until institutional reforms are fully implemented and SID is restructured where the management of canal system is left solely with SIDA and SID takes over the responsibility of policy, regulation, planning and monitoring for the water sector. This means that complete administrative and financial autonomy shall be given to SIDA in all respects.
Experimentation of institutional reforms over a period of 18 years demands that based on the experiences a workable system using the principles of PIM[13] and IWRM[14] shall be developed and implemented in all the canals. For this purpose, an in-house understanding and ownership has to be developed for an agreed model of institutional reforms. This would help to address the current issue, where two levels of water governance systems at the canal level can be replaced with an agreed model of institutional reforms and water governance.
SID is already engaged in activities related to water resources management and development in the province. Thus, there is an urgent need that SID be restructured as a SWRMD[15].
The role of SIDA will be a service provider and demands active participation of water users. Once an agreed system of institutional reforms is introduced; the reforms process will start producing the positive results. There is no option available for reversal to the old system, as country will be facing severe challenges in the future, which demands that planning, monitoring, policy and regulation of water resources management and development shall be separated from the service delivery. This aspect is rather more important after the 18th amendment, where some of the roles of WAPDA[16] have been handed over to the provinces. But no effort has been made to look in to the revised role of WAPDA and SID.
The best way might be to initiate the process of developing an in-house understanding and ownership of the reforms for restructuring existing institutions as ‘Institutions of High Performance’ - smart and tidy institutions. However, the culture of both SID and SIDA will be different. SID will be a Department looking at the policy, regulation, planning and monitoring. SIDA will be largely a service provider and management agency responsible to manage the existing irrigation system.
There is a need to develop a separate institution dealing with planning, design and implementation of water development projects – canals, dams, lakes, reservoirs, etc. Currently, Small Dams Organization is responsible for development and management of small dams. This institution may also be made responsible for the management of existing dams, wetlands and Indus delta, and the development work be assigned to the proposed development agency within SID.
Finally a comprehensive study is needed for the restructuring of SID in to Water Resource Management and Development Department and allied institutions be also restructured to make them high performance institutions. The SWMO 2002 is a better ordinance and improved version of SIDA Act 1997, however based on the experience of last 12 years in implementing this ordinance revision is needed in SWMO 2002 after restructuring of SID. Furthermore, there is a need to revise the Sindh Irrigation Act of 1879 in line with the revised SWMO 2002 so that all the regulations can be made in line with the concepts of PIM, IWRM and FDM[17].
Groundwater rights have not yet been introduced in the province and there is a need for conjunctive use of water through integrating surface and groundwater rights.
2.1.2. Key policy issues
Six key policy issues related to water governance including institutional reforms are identified and presented as under (Figure 2):
Figure 2: Key policy issues for water governance in Sindh