Department and Graduate Institute of Early Childhood Development and Education

Participation in After-School Programs and its Relations to Academic and Behavioral Adjustments of Children in International Marriages

Hsiu-chih Su & Tzu-Jung Lai

ECER 2009, ViennaAustria

Department and Graduate Institute of Early Childhood Development and Education

ChaoyangUniversity of Technology

Taiwan

Abstract

This study was intended to describe participation in after-school programs of children from families with a Southeast Asian or Chinese spouse, and its relations to children’s adjustments. There were three major objectives.

1. To describe participation in after-school programs of children from families with a Southeast Asian or Chinese spouse.

2. To identify child- and family-selection factors associated with those children’s experiences.

3. To examine the relations between participation in after-school programs and children’s adjustments, controlling for child and family-selection factors.

Questionnaire survey was used to collect data. Participants included children from families with a Southeast Asian or Chinese spouse, their parents, and their homeroom teachers from 15 elementary schools in Taichung county. Three hundred eighty-seven copies of questionnaires were sent to parents and teachers. Two hundred ninety-four valid parent questionnaires were returned, the return rate was 75%. Two hundred seventy valid teacher questionnaires were returned, the return rate was 69%. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square, Anova, correlation, and hierarchical multiple regression tests were used.

Results indicated that 68% children participated in after-school programs, among them, 35.5% attended public after-school programs in elementary schools and 64.5% attended private after-school programs.

Younger children were more likely to attend after-school programs. Children with better Chinese scores in the first grade were more likely to attend private after-school programs outside school, while children with poorer Chinese scores in the first grade were more likely to attend public after-school programs inside elementary schools. Children with an unemployed father or without a father were more likely to attend after-school programs. Children with an unemployed mother or without a mother were more likely to attend public after-school programs inside elementary schools. Children of Southeast Asian spouses were more likely to attend after-school programs than children of Chinese spouses. Chinese spouses were more likely to send their children to private programs than Southeast Asian spouses. Children with higher family incomes were more likely to attend private after-school programs than public programs.

After controlling for child- and family-selection factors, participation in private after-school programs predicted better Mathematics scores, while participation in public after-school programs predicted poorer scores.

Keywords: Southeast Asian spouse, Chinese spouse, after-school programs, adjustment

Introduction

In Taiwan the number of international marriages is increasing. The majority of foreign spouses come from China and Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam and Indonesia. Most Taiwanese who marry these foreign spouses come from lower socio-economic status in countryside, and some even have disabilities. Many of these international marriages are based more on economics than on love. Many foreign spouses get married at a young age, and give birth to babies while they are still adjusting to life in Taiwan. Many foreign spouses (especially from Southeast Asia) encounter difficulty in adjustment, such as language, culture, marriage, parenting etc.

Not only foreign spouses encounter difficulty in adjustment, their children are also considered at risk most likely because of the lower socio-economic status of these families. It is estimated that one in eight babies is born by foreign spouses. Research indicates that their children have a higher risk of developmental delay and learning difficulties at school. Many foreign spouses have limited Chinese and have difficulty helping with children’s school works. Study on Southeast Asian spouses indicated that what they need the most were financial aids and children’s homework help (Hsu, 2004). How to help foreign spouses and their families has attracted increasing attention from policy makers and researchers.

Studies (Entwisle, 1975; Howes, Olenick, & Der-Kiureghian, 1987; Mayesky, 1980; Sheley, 1984; Posner & Vandell, 1994) indicated that quality after-school programs have positive effects, especially on at-risk children. Currently private after-school programs in Taiwan are expensive; many families can hardly afford the expenses. In order to meet parents’ need for after-school child care, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan has encouraged public elementary schools to provide after-school care. The cost is much cheaper than private after-school programs. In addition, the tuition for children with disabilities, and from low-income, aboriginal, and international families are waved. However, the impacts of these public after-school programs on at-risk children are not well known.

Su (2008) found that children with lower family incomes were more likely to attend public after-school programs inside elementary schools. After controlling child and family selection factors, participation in private after-school programs predicted better academic scores. The limitation of the study is that it did not control for children’s prior adjustment. In this study, children’s prior academic scores were controlled in addition to other child and family selection factors.

The objectives of this study are:

1. To describe participation in after-school programs of children from families with a Southeast Asian or Chinese spouse.

2. To identify child- and family-selection factors associated with participation in after-school programs.

3. To examine the relations between participation in after-school programs and children’s academic and behavioral adjustments, controlling for child and family-selection factors.

Definition of Terminology:

After-school program: It refers to programs which offer after-school child care for school-age children. In this study two types of programs are studies: for-profit programs provided by private sectors and non-profit programs provided in public elementary schools.

Foreign spouses:Generally it refers to all spouses who come from a foreign country. In this study it mainly refers to spouses who come from Southeast Asian countries, Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, Philippine, Cambodia, but not including more economically prosperous countries such as Singapore, Malaysia, etc.

Chinese spouses: Spouses who come from Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macaw often are called foreign spouses as well, however they are regulated by different laws. Because Chinese spouse can read and speak Chinese, and their situations are quite different from foreign spouses from Southeast Asian countries. In this study, Chinese spouses are separated from the definition of foreign spouses.

Distribution of Foreign spouses in Taiwan

Table 1.Mother Country of Foreign Spouses

Country / total / Vietnam / Indonesia / Thailand / Philippine / Cambodia / total / Mainland
China / Hong Kong
Macaw / Total
Total / 397,465 / 80,679 / 26,108 / 8,386 / 6,287 / 4,420 / 125,880 / 260,152 / 11,433 / 271,585

Table 2. School-Age Children of Foreign Spouses by Grade Level

Grade
level / 1 / 2 / 3 / 4 / 5 / 6
total / 70,797 / 17,647 / 14,879 / 12,805 / 10,564 / 8,438 / 6,464

Table 3. 2007-2008 Children (Elementary & Junior High School) from International Marriages

country / boys / girls / total
total / 47,073 / 43,885 / 90,958
Mainland China / 17,282 / 15,717 / 32,999
Vietnam / 12,446 / 11,822 / 24,268
Indonesia / 9,615 / 9,079 / 18,694
Thailand / 1,499 / 1,361 / 2,860
Philippine / 2,163 / 2,067 / 4,230
Cambodia / 911 / 884 / 1,795
Japan / 358 / 368 / 726
Malaysia / 650 / 581 / 1,231
U.S. / 272 / 262 / 534
South Korea / 271 / 229 / 500
Myanmar / 889 / 809 / 1,698
Singapore / 70 / 82 / 152
Canada / 65 / 59 / 124
others / 582 / 565 / 1,147

Method

This section includes five parts. First, a theoretical framework is provided. Second, participants are described. Third, research instruments are described. Fourth, procedure is described. Finally, statistical analysis methods are described.

Theoretical framework:

child factors
1. gender
2. grade level
3.prior academic scores(Chinese & Math)
after-school programs participation and types
1.public programs inside elementary school
2.private programs outside school
3.Not enrolled in programs
Adjustment variables
1.academic scores
(1)Chinese
(2)Math
2.behavioral problems
(1)internal behavioral problems
(2)external behavioral problems
(3)overall behavioral problems
family factors
1.father work status
2.motherwork status
3.father education
4.mother education
5.mother country of foreign spouse
6.family income

Figure 1. Theoretical framework

Participants:

Participants included children from families with a Southeast Asian or Chinese spouse, their parents, and their homeroom teachers from 15 elementary schools in central Taiwan. Three hundred eighty-seven copies of questionnaires were sent to parents and teachers. Two hundred ninety-four valid parent questionnaires were returned, the return rate was 75%. Two hundred seventy valid teacher questionnaires were returned, the return rate was 69%.

Table 4.Mother Country of Foreign Spousesin This Study

frequency / percentage
Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macaw / 100 / 34.0
Vietnam / 94 / 32.0
Indonesia / 50 / 17.0
Thailand / 8 / 2.7
Philippine / 10 / 3.4
Cambodia / 27 / 9.2
Others / 4 / 1.4
subtotal / 293 / 99.7
Missing data / 1 / .3
Total / 294 / 100.0

Table5. Father Education

frequency / percentage
Elementary school and below / 33 / 11.2
Junior high school / 104 / 35.4
High school / 123 / 41.8
Two-year college / 18 / 6.1
Four-year college / 7 / 2.4
Graduate and above / 2 / .7
Total / 287 / 97.6
Missing data / 7 / 2.4
total / 294 / 100.0

Table 6. Mother Education

frequency / percentage
Elementary school and below / 66 / 22.4
Junior high school / 94 / 32.0
High school / 89 / 30.3
Two-year college / 6 / 2.0
Four-year college / 11 / 3.7
Graduate school and above / 1 / .3
subtotal / 267 / 90.8
Missing data / 27 / 9.2
total / 294 / 100.0

Table 7. Family Incomes

frequency / percentage
10,000 or below / 23 / 7.8
10,001-20,000 / 34 / 11.6
20,001-30,000 / 47 / 16.0
30,001-40,000 / 56 / 19.0
40,001-50,000 / 50 / 17.0
50,001-60,000 / 34 / 11.6
60,001-70,000 / 22 / 7.5
70,001-80,000 / 3 / 1.0
90,001-100,000 / 4 / 1.4
100,000 and above / 5 / 1.7
Subtotal / 278 / 94.6
Missing data / 16 / 5.4
total / 294 / 100.0

Instruments:

Two instruments were used to collect data, including parent questionnaires and teacher questionnaires.

1. Parent questionnaire: Parents were requested to answer questions about work status, education, family income, mother country of foreign spouse, children’s participation in after-school programs, and child behavior checklist (Achenbach, 1991). Cronbach’s αfor internal behavioral problems, external behavioral problems, and overall behavioral problems were .86, .90, and .93 sequentially.
2. Teacher questionnaire: Home room teachers were requested to answer questions about their class and children’s scores in Chinese and Math.

Procedure:

Researchers visited each elementary school and explained the research purposes of the study to the principal or chair of academic affairs. Then researchers seeked for homeroom teachers’ help to distribute parent questionnaires to children from families with a foreign or Chinese spouse. Children who brought back questionnaires received a present. Each teacher also received a small present.

Statistical analyses:

Questionnaire data were collected, entered into SPSS data base, and analyzed. Descriptive statistics, Chi-square, Anova, correlation, and hierarchical multiple regression tests were used.

Results

1. To describe participation in after-school programs of children from families with a Southeast Asian or Chinese spouse.

Results indicated that among 294 children, 200 (68%) participated in after-school programs. Chi-square tests indicated children of foreign and Chinese spouses were significantly more likely enrolled in after-school programs(χ2=38.218，df=1，p=.000).

Among 200 children enrolled in programs,68 (35.5%)attended public after-school programs in elementary schools and 126 (64.5%) attended private after-school programs, in addition to 6 missing data. Chi-square tests indicated children of foreign and Chinese spouses were significantly more likely enrolled in private after-school programs(χ2=17.340，df=1，p=.000).Foreign and Chinese spouses preferred private after-school programs over public after-school programs even though they were more expensive.

2. To identify child- and family-selection factors associated with participation in after-school programs.

Child factors:

Gender: Gender was not significantly related to participation in after-school programs or program types.

Grade level: Chi-square tests indicated that grade level was significantly related to participation in after-school programs(χ2=12.797，df=5，p=.025<.05). Younger children were more likely to attend after-school programs.

Prior Chinese scores in the first grade: Results indicated that there was no significant relations between prior Chinese scores and participation in after-school programs (t=-.823，df=267，p=.411>.05). Children’s Chinese scores in the first gradewere related to after-school program types. Children with better prior Chinese scores in the first grade were more likely to attend private after-school programs, while children with poorer prior Chinese scores in the first grade were more likely to attend public after-school programs inside elementary schools.

Table 8.T-Test of Program Types and Prior Chinese Scoresin the First Grade

Program types / N / M / SD / t / df / p
Chinese scores in the first grade / Public after-school program inside elementary school / 64 / 88.9297 / 10.6279 / -2.550 / 170 / .012**
Private after-school programs / 108 / 92.2125 / 6.2723

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

Prior Math scores in the first grade:Prior Math scores in the first grade were not significantly related to participation in after-school program (t=-.655，df=267，p=.513>.05)and program types.

Family factors:

Father work status:Results indicated that father work status was significantly related to participation in after-school program(χ2=6.570，df=2，p=.037<.05). Children with an unemployed father or without a father were more likely to attend after-school programs than children with an employed father.Results indicated that father work status was not significantly related to participation in after-school program types(χ2=3.860，df=2，p=.145>.05).

Table 9. Chi-Square Test of Father Work Status and Participation in After-School Programs

Participation in after-school programs / total / χ2 / df
No / Yes
No father / 1 / 9 / 10 / 6.570* / 2
10.0% / 90.0% / 100.0%
Unemployed Father / 5
16.1% / 26
83.9% / 31
100.0%
Employed Father / 87
34.5% / 165
65.5% / 252
100.0%
total / 93 / 200 / 293
31.7% / 68.3% / 100.0%

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

Mother work status: mother work status was not significantly related to participation in after-school programs(χ2=2.857，df=2，p=.240>.05). Mother work status was significantly related to program types(χ2=8.000，df=2，p=.018<.05). Children with an unemployed mother or without a mother were more likely to attend public after-school programs inside elementary schools than children with an employed mother.

Table 10.Chi-Square Tests of Mother Work Status and Program Types

Program types / total / χ2 / df
Public program inside elementary school / Private after-school program
No mother / 8 / 5 / 13 / 8.000* / 2
61.5% / 38.5% / 100.0%
Unemployed Mother / 19 / 22 / 41
46.3% / 53.7% / 100.0%
Employed Mother / 39 / 93 / 132
29.5% / 70.5% / 100.0%
total / 66 / 120 / 186
35.5% / 64.5% / 100.0%

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

Father education: Father education was not significantly related to participation in after-school programs and program types.

Mother education: Mother education was not significantly related to participation in after-school programs and program types.

Mother country: Relations between mother country and participation in after-school program approached significant(χ2=3.33，df=1，p=.068>.05). There was a tendency that children of foreign spouses were more likely to attend after-school programs than children of Chinese spouse. Mother country was significantly related to program types(χ2=5.89，df=1，p=.015<.05). Chi-square tests indicated that Chinese spouses were more likely to send their children to private programs than Southeast Asian spouses.

Table 11.Chi-Square Tests of Mother Country and Program Types

Program types / total / χ2 / df
Public program inside elementary school / Private after-school program
nationality / 5.89* / 1
Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macaw / 14 / 47 / 61
23.0% / 77.0% / 100.0%
Foreign spouse / 54
40.9% / 78
59.1% / 132
100.0%
total / 68 / 125 / 193
35.2% / 64.8% / 100.0%

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

Family income: Results indicated that family income was not significantly related to program participation. However, family incomes were found to be significantly related to program types(χ2=6.353，df=2，p=.042<.05).Children with higher family incomes were more likely to attend private after-school programs.

Table 12.Chi-Square Tests of Family Income and Program Types

Program types / total / χ2 / df
Public program inside elementary school / Private after-school program
Family income / 6.353* / 2
poor / 30 / 37 / 67
44.8% / 55.2% / 100.0%
middle / 28 / 67 / 95
29.5% / 70.5% / 100.0%
rich / 3 / 14 / 17
17.6% / 82.4% / 100.0%
total / 61 / 118 / 179
34.1% / 65.9% / 100.0%

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

3. To examine the relations between participation in after-school programs and children’s academic and behavioral adjustments, controlling for child and family-selection factors.

Preliminary analyses.

Chinese scores: Participation in after-school programs was not significantly related to Chinese scores. Results indicated that children’s Chinese scores were significantly related to program types(t=-2.832，df=176，p=.005<.05). Children who attended private programs had better Chinese scores than children who attend public programs.

Table 13.T-Test of Program Types and Chinese Mid-Term Exam Scores

Program types / N / M / SD / t / df / p
Chinese scores / Public program inside elementary school / 65 / 88.4940 / 13.9101 / -2.832** / 176 / .005
Private programs / 113 / 92.9659 / 7.1472

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

Math scores: Participation in after-school program was not significantly related to math scores. Results indicated that program types were significantly related to math scores(t=-3.338，df=176，p=.001<.05).Children who attended private programs had better Math mid-term exam scores than children who attend public programs.This finding is consistent with Su’s (2008) findings.

Table 14.T-Test of Program Types and Math Mid-Term Exam Scores

Program types / N / M / SD / t / df / p
Math scores / Public program inside elementary school / 65 / 80.8720 / 17.1505 / -3.338*** / 176 / .001
Private after-school programs / 113 / 87.9748 / 11.2038

*p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

Children’s behavioral problems: Participation in after-school program was not significantly related to children’s internal behavioral problems(t=-.523，df=272，p=.601>.05), children’s external behavioral problems(t=-.732，df=272，p=.465>.05)and overall behavioral problems. Program types were not significantly related to children’s internal behavioral problems(t=.467，df=175，p=.641>.05), external behavioral problems(t=1.137，df=175，p=.257>.05), and overall behavioral problems(t=1.023，df=175，p=.308>.05). The finding was consistent with Su (2008)’s findings.

Multiple regression analyses.

Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine whether program participation and program types predicted child adjustment, controlling for family- and child-selection factors. Family- and child-selection factors were entered as the first equation. The selection factors included three child factors (grade level, prior Chinese scores or Math scores), and three family factors (father work status, mother country, and family income). Next, program participation and program types were added as a block to family and child factors in a second equation. The increment to R2 made by the addition of program factors was then tested.