ANXIETY IN LATVIANS AND RUSSIANS RESIDING IN LATVIA
SUMMARY OF PROMOTIONAL STUDY
State and trait anxiety6 has been extensively investigated in a number of intra-cultural and cross-cultural studies (e.g., Bergeron, 1983; Magnusson, Stattin & Iwawaki. 1983; Emmite & Diaz-Guerro, 1983; Ahlawat, 1986; Napurahki &Brooks, 1995; Iwata & Higudci 2000; Rimoldi, Raimondo. Erdmann & Hojat, 2002; Poltavski Ferraro, 2002. etc). To investigate anxiety in two major ethnic groups in Latvia, i.e., Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia, the author has set the purpose of the promotional study: to investigate the features of anxiety in Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia according to a breakdown by sex, age and occupation groups.
The theoretical basis of the promotional study "Anxiety in Latvians and Russians Residing in Latvia" is the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory developed by Charles Spielberger (Spielberger, O'Neil & Hansen, 1972; Spielberger, 1972b; Spielberger, 1972c; Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lusbene, Vagg & Jacobs, 1983).
Subject matter of research: anxiety (anxiety as an emotional state and anxiety as a personality trait).
Research subjects: Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia between the ages of 19 and 69. The total sample comprises 1610 respondents, of which the Latvian sample is represented by 514 males and 695 females. The Russian sample comprises 216 male and 185 female respondents. The ethnic origin of respondents has been determined on the basis of information provided by them.
Key questions:
1.What are the A-State and A-Trait scores of Latvians, according to sex and
age categories?
2.What are the A-State and A-Trait scores of Russians residing in Latvia,
according to sex and age categories?
3.What differences exist between A-State and A-Trait scores of Latvians and
Russians residing in Latvia?
6 Statt-Trait anxiety model developed by Charles D. Spielberger and colleagues distinguishes between situational anxiety, i.e. state anxiety and anxiety as a personality trait (trait anxiety). For the purposes of this study situational anxiety or stale anxiety shall be denoted as A-State, while the concept anxiety as a personality trait shall be designated as A-Trait.
To provide the answers to the above questions, the author set the objective to adapt the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI; Spielberger, Gorsiuh, Lusbene, Vagg & Jacobs, 1983) developed by Spielberger and colleagues. In addition, the following research question was addressed:
Do the psychometric indices of the Latvian and Russian versions of the STAI-Y correspond to the psychometric indices of the original sample7?
In order to achieve the objective of the promotional study and find the answers to the questions put forward in this research, the following tasks were identified and set:
6.Analysis of reference literature and latest research on the concept of anxiety in
psychology.
7.Collection, processing and analysis of data regarding the STAI-Y adaptation in
Latvian and Russian.
8.Comparison of A-State and A-Trait in Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia
(by categories of sex, age and occupation).
9.Psychological interpretation of results.
10.Summary of results and conclusions and discussion of practical application of
the promotional study.
Methods of research:
•State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y), Spielberger,
Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg & Jacobs, 1983),
•Taylor's Manifest Anxiety Scale. (Taylor, 1953;A personality scale of manifest
anxiety,).
•Subjective locus of control (Бажин, Голыкина & Эткин, 1993; Reņģe, 1999).
Topicality and novelty of research.
1) In the course of this study the globally applied anxiety identification method (STAI-Y) has been adapted in the Latvian and Russian languages, thus enabling further application of the method for the purposes of future research work and psychological diagnostics in Latvia.
7Original sample - the sample of US students and employed persons (Spielberger, Gorruch. Lusbene, Vagg & Jakobs. 1983)
2)As the STAI has been adapted in more than 50 different languages in the
world, its adaptation in Latvian and Russian will enable researchers to carry
out cross-cultural studies, allowing the comparison of the results derived in
Latvia with those obtained in other countries.
3)To date, cross-cultural research on anxiety scores has been carried out in
various ethnic groups, (e.g., Diaz-Guerrero, 1981; Endler & Magnusson, 1981;
Bergeron, 1983; Magnusson, Stattin & Iwawaki, 1983; Emmite &Diaz-Guerrero,
1983; Ablawat, 1986; Napieralski & Brooks, 1995; Iwata &Higuci, 2000, etc.),
however, none of the previous studies have focused on Latvian respondents
and Russians residing in Latvia. The obtained results would allow one to draw
conclusions on anxiety scores of Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia, to
compare the anxiety scores of Latvians with those of Russians residing in
Latvia, and to compare the results with the anxiety scores of respondents
representing other cultures. The subject issue is of special importance in the
present-day situation in Latvia, which is marked by ongoing community
integration processes.
Practical application of research
3)The summary of theoretical assumptions and empirical research on A-State
and A-Trait in Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia, drawn within the
framework of this study may serve as a substantial informative base for the
psychological research field in Latvia.
4)The globally applied State-Trait Anxiety Inventory method (STAI-Y) has been
translated and validated in Latvian and Russian, thus providing the
opportunity to apply this method in future research work in Latvia, as well as
for the purposes of psychological diagnostics.
3) The study contributes to the research carried out in Latvia on ethnic differences of Latvians and Russians enabling a better understanding of ethnic differences.
Structure of study
The study consists of 2 parts, each of them comprising four chapters.
The first chapter of the theoretical part comprises an insight into the anxiety concept in psychology by looking at various theoretical approaches (psychodynamic, existentialist and humanist, behavioural, biological, cognitive and
trait approach), and through the analysis of another concepts close to anxiety in their meaning: fear, threats, stress, panic and depression. Chapter two presents the differences in the manifestation of anxiety between different age, sex and ethnic groups. The author analyses intra-cultural as well as cross-cultural studies of anxiety.
In chapters three and four, the author presents the research on anxiety in Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia, carried out within the framework of this study. Chapter three includes a description of the research sample, instruments and procedures. Chapter four comprises the analysis and psychological interpretation of the research results. The author describes the process of STAI-Y adaptation in the Latvian and Russian languages. Differences and common tendencies of anxiety scores between Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia have been explored. The final part of the study presents the author's conclusions drawn in the course of the study, suggestions developed by the author, the relevance of the study, and points out the limitations of the research.
The volume of study: 131 pages. The paper includes 31 tables and 3 figures. The bibliography consists of 226 reference sources. The study contains 15 annexes.
Theoretical part
Anxiety concept in psychology
The subject of anxiety has been addressed by representatives of various theory schools, however, this results in rather contradictory views on anxiety, its causes and its manifestation. The chapter "Concept of Anxiety in Various Theoretical Approaches" focuses on theoretical approaches regarding the concept of anxiety in psychology: psychodynamic, behavioural, biological and cognitive approaches, as well as existentialist and humanist psychology and trait theory approaches. The promotional study primarily focuses on the views of personality trait theory authors and representatives of the cognitive-behavioural approach.
According to the standpoint of the authors of personal trait theories, individuals differ in the intensity of traits that may vary over certain intervals. Trait
factors allow one to forecast behaviour with more precision than do state factors, although in extreme situations the state factors may have a crucial effect on the individual's behaviour. Anxiety as one of the most important personality traits is looked at in a number of personality trait models. The Eysenck Personality Profile assigns five primary factors to neuroticism: inferiority, unhappiness, anxiety, dependence (addition), obsessiveness. The Cattell 16 Personality Factor model treats the factors QI (extraversion/ intraversion) and QII (anxiety) as important and the most important and easily identifiable second order bask traits. One of the five basic factors underlying the recendy popular Five-Factor Model (FFM; Costa & McCrae, 1992) - neuroticism - represents the emotional instability of an individual, which is related to negative emotional states - fear, anger, unhappiness, anxiety, sense of guilt. Construct validity tests with the NEO—PI-R8 have shown the existence of the following sub-factors that underlie the neuroticism factor: anxiousness, depression, impulsiveness, sense of guilt, vulnerability, self-consciousness (Costa &McCrae, 1992).
Matthews & Deary (Matthews & Deary, 1998), after summarizing the views of trait theory audiors, have come to the conclusion that a causal relationship exists between personality traits and behaviour: personality traits can be regarded as a cause, whereas behaviour - as a consequence.
Within the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory model (Spielberger, 1985) anxiety state (A-State) is seen as an unpleasant emotional state when an individual experiences subjective feelings of tension, nervousness, apprehension, heightened activity of the autonomic nervous system. Anxiety as a personality trait (A-Trait) comprises an acquired behavioural disposition to perceive an objectively safe object as threatening and dangerous and respond to it with A-State anxiety, the intensity of which is not adequate to the objective situation.
The analysis of anxiety as a state and anxiety as a personality trait leads to the conclusion that the intensity and duration of A-State anxiety is the consequence of one's cognitive evaluation. This, to a large extent, depends on four determinants: 1) the external features of a situation; 2) the A-trait of an individual; 3) the
8 NEO-P-R - che leading personality five-factor model identification method (Costa & McCrae, 1992).
individual's evaluation of how successful he will be in reacting to thesituation; 4) the impact of feedback from the situation on the current A-Trait of the individual. (Spielberger, Ritterband, Sydeman &Unger,1995).
In the conclusion of Chapter one the author analyses the relationship between fear, stress and depression and A-State and A-Trait.
Anxiety in various age, sex and ethnic groups
Chapter two of the theoretical part of the promotional study is aimed at summarising the theoretical statements and empirical research on anxiety by different age, sex and ethnic categories.
A higher anxiety level is characteristic of young people, while anxiety levels tend to fall around the age of 30. At the age of 60 and over, anxiety levels tend to grow again (Cattell, 1965). Trait theory authors (i.e., McCrae & Costa, 1994) have concluded that Big Five Factor changes are taking place before the age of 30, when stable factor scores become characteristic. Studies on the stability of anxiety (Costa, McCrae, Zonderman, Barbano, Lebowitz & Larson, 1986; Nakazato & Shimonaka, 1989) have shown that anxiety tends to decrease gradually and smoothly as age advances. The authors point out that the anxiety changes to a large extent depend on the peculiarities of the sample, though they stress that the obtained results largely conform with Erikson's idea that old age is the time of ego integrity, when individuals are comparatively free of neurotic anxiety (Costa, McCrae, Zonderman, Barbano, Lebowitz & Larson, 1986; Nakazato & Shimonaka, 1989).
Sex differences in anxiety scores reported in a number of studies (Laux, Glanzmiann, Schaffer & Spielberger, 1981; Van der Ploeg, 1985; Virella, Arbona &Novy, 1994; Nakazato & Shimonaka, 1989) are, in the majority of cases, explained by culturally accepted stereotypic views of socially desirable behaviour of men and women. Nakazato and Shimonaka (Nakazato & Shimonaka, 1989) explain the sex differences in anxiety according to traditional perceptions of sex-roles, Maccoby andjacklin conclude that the causes of sex differences in anxiety are to be sought in childhood experiences, whereas Nolen-Hoeksema believes that the responses of men and women to stress caused by complicated circumstances are best
demonstrated by the methods they choose to cope with negative emotions and anxiety arising from such emotions.
Though anxiety is considered to be a universal psychological phenomenon, the experience and interpretation of anxiety, as well as the distribution of different anxiety types, differ across cultures. Magnusson, Stattin and Iwawaki (1983) have concluded that people representing different cultures see threat and danger in quite the same situations, but the intensity of their anxiety responses to such situations differ. The reason for anxiety level differences between various cultures or ethnic groups might relate to different traditional views inherent to particular cultures regarding socially desirable behaviour in given situations. Cross-cultural or ethnic differences in anxiety levels may also be related to differences in goals and evaluation of priorities inherent to different cultures (Diaz-Guerrero, 1981).
Although previous research carried out in Latvia demonstrated that the causes of anxiety in citizens and non-citizens do not fundamentally differ, neither in their perception of threats at a national and community level nor in their perception of threats at an individual level. However, differences have been found in the average intensity of feeling endangered. Major differences are demonstrated in the perception of various possible direats on a national or community level - 64% of citizens still fear that Latvia may again be occupied by a foreign powers, whereas the same fear is experienced by only 34% of non-citizens (Latvija. Pārskats par tautas attīstību 2002/2003). In addition, insufficiency of social guarantees is the cause of worry for a higher percentage of non-citizens.
Research carried out in Estonia (Ott, Clark & Ennuste, 1996) has led to the conclusion that anxiety caused by economic reforms is correlated to ethnic group, age and income level of respondents: Estonians are less anxious about possible unemployment than are Russians living in Estonia; elderly respondents and Russians living in Estonia are less supportive of economic and political reforms and are more worried about their consequences. Both Estonians and Russians living in Estonia show anxiety about their social status in this time of economic and political changes.
The above-mentioned theories and research results have led the author to put forward several questions - what are the A-State and A-Trait scores of
Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia, and what differences exist between A-State and A-Trait scores of Latvians and Russians residing in Latvia?.
Method
Participants
This research sample consisted of respondents whose demographic particulars met the following criteria: age - 19 to 69 yrs, ethnic origin - Latvians or Russians, occupation — students or working adults. Ethnic origin was determined according to information provided by respondents.
In total, the sample consists of 1610 respondents (see Table 1).
Instruments
State-Trait Anxiety Self-Evaluation Questionnaire. (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg & Jacobs, 1983). The questionnaire consists of two scales. The first scale indicates A-State, the other scale A-Trait. Each scale consists of 20 statements that must be evaluated by respondents according to Likert scale.
Within the promotional study framework the adaptation of STAI-Y Latvian and Russian versions was performed.
Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (TMAS, Taylor,1953). When completing the TMAS, a respondent must evaluate 50 statements, indicating which statement in the respondent's view is correct and which is incorrect. Each answer may account for 1 score point of the total anxiety score, which may range from 0 to 50. The scale demonstrates the frequency of an individual's feelings related to the presence or absence of anxiety. TMAS treats anxiety as a personality trait. Within the framework of this study, the Taylor scale has been translated from the original, and the internal consistency of the Latvian and Russian versions was determined. According to the Kuder-Richardson formula, in the Latvian sample the internal consistency was 0.84 and in the Russian sampleit was 0.86.
Subjective Locusof Control Scale. (Бажин, Голыкина & Эткин,
1993;Reņģe, 1999). This questionnaire was developed in accordance with the concept worked out by J.B. Rotter on external and internal locus of control. The scale consists of 44 items, to which respondents answer "agree" or "disagree". The internal consistency of the sub-scale I,, (overall internal locus of control scale) was found to be 0,80, and the correlation of the sub-scale Io with the Roter test was 0,70 (Бажин, Голыкина, Эткин, 1993). In this promotional study, it was found that the internal consistency (according to the Kuder-Richardson formula) is 0,78 for the Latvian sample and 0,80 for the Russian sample.
Procedure
The research data was collected over the period from 2000 through 2003. Students completed the questionnaires in auditoriums (usually in groups of 40-50 students). The working respondents completed the questionnaires in company training centres, when they attended qualification improvement courses (usually in groups of 10-12 individuals).
Results
Psychometric properties of the Latvian and Russian Versions of the
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (Form Y)
Descriptive statistics were calculated for the STAI-Y Latvian version and the STRAI-Y Russian version.
The internal consistency of the Latvian and Russian versions was evaluated using Cronbach's alpha coefficient. As seen in Table 2 and Table 3, the internal consistency coefficients are high, and similar to the original sample - the alpha coefficients ranged from .83 to .92 in the Latvian sample, and from .76 to .94 in the Russian sample (Tables 2 and 3).
Test-retest reliability was examined for the STAI-Y Latvian and Russian versions completed by the student group. It was found that the test-retest correlation coefficients for T-anxiety were between .85 and .87 in the Latvian student group and between .79 and .87 in the Russian student gtoup, results that are similar to the results from the original sample (.65 to .75).
Table 2. Descriptive properties of the STAI-Y Latvian version in various age
groups.