Corporate Social Responsibility – a way of being unique?
Table of contents
1. Introduction
1.1Problem statement 4
1.2 Method 5
1.3Analysis...... 6
1.4 Delimitation of empirical data and theory...... 8
1.4.1 Empirical data...... 8
1.4.2Theory...... 10
1.5 The structure of this thesis...... 12
2. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
2.1 The concept of Critical Discourse Analysis...... 14
2.2 Norman Fairclough’s approach to CDA 15
2.2.1The social dimension...... 18
2.2.2 The discursive dimension...... 19
2.2.3 The textual dimension...... 20
2.3 Criticism of Fairclough...... 20
3. Genre Analysis
3.1 A historical review of genre analysis 22
3.2 Definition of genre 23
3.3 Bhatia’s approach to genre analysis...... 24
3.4 The steps covered in the genre analysis of this thesis...... 28
4. Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
4.1 CSR a confusing concept 32
4.1.1 Different schools of CSR...... 32
4.1.2 Relating concepts...... 34
4.2 International influencers on the CSR agenda...... 35
4.2.1 Global Compact 35
4.2.2 World Business Council for Sustainable Development...... 37
4.3 Carroll’s CSR pyramid...... 38
4.3.1 Criticism of the CSR Pyramid...... 40
4.4 This thesis’ CSR framework...... 41
4.4.1 A modified CSR model...... 42
5. The case companies
5.1 BMW...... 44
5.2 Toyota...... 45
5.3 Volvo...... 45
6. Genre analysis
6.1 Step 3 - Refining the situational/contextual analysis 48
6.1.1 The senders 48
6.1.2 The communicative purpose...... 49
6.1.3 The receivers...... 49
6.2 Step 5 – Studying the institutional context...... 50
6.3 Step 6 – Levels of linguistic analysis/Structural interpretation of the text genre...... 53
6.4 Conventions for the CSR genre...... 55
6.4.1 Global Compact as a convention...... 56
6.4.2 Other conventions...... 58
6.5 Conclusion...... 58
7. Discourse analysis
7.1 Intertextuality 60
7.1.1Interdiscursivity and the established discourses...... 62
7.1.2 The non-established discourses ...... 63
7.1.3 Manifest intertextuality...... 67
7.2 The company specific CSR orders of discourse...... 67
7.3 Conclusion...... 68
8. Discussion
8.1 The reason for the existence of the conventions...... 71
8.2 A lifeblood discourse to challenge the conventions...... 74
9. Conclusion
9.1 The social dimension...... 76
9.2 The discursive dimension...... 77
9.3 How to challenge the conventions...... 78
Bibliography
Model list
Appendix list
1. Introduction
“Eradicating extreme poverty continues to be one of the main challenges of our time, and is a major concern of the international community. Ending this scourge will require the combined efforts of all, governments, civil society organizations and the private sector, in the context of a stronger and more effective global partnership for development.”
United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon[1]
The world today is facing a number of urgent challenges such as global warming and climate change, a rapidly growing population, increased pressure on scarce resources, extreme poverty and the AIDS epidemic. No global organisation or local government can solve these problems alone and therefore businesses are by their stakeholders expected to share part of the burden. Additionally, stakeholders are becoming more aware of companies’ impact on the surrounding society, and the companies are expected to take responsibility for issues they had not previously thought were part of their businesses’ responsibilities, e.g. how their suppliers conduct business, what their products are used for and the environmental impact (Porter et al. 2006:80) .
This pressure to do well and conduct responsible and ethical business comes from a large and diverse number of stakeholders, e.g. governments and the United Nations (UN). On a global level, the UN promotes the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) by encouraging companies to sign Global Compact.[2] In addition, several governments and the UN are demanding a well-documented CSR profile as a condition for the possibility to bid on public tenders (Mortensen 2009, appendix 1: 1). On a national level, the Danish government has presented a plan of action for CSR; partly encouraging Danish companies to focus on CSR and partly forcing them by law.[3] The media also put pressure on companies to do well, as companies who are conducting unethical business and their business partners are getting more and more attention in the news.[4] Political consumerism and information technology are aspects that have had an influence on consumers, and their demands arechanging, as they increasingly prefer products and brands from responsible companies. As a result, more and more companies now focus on CSR, and it has quickly become a global competitive parameter used by many companies to capture the attention of consumers and customers (Kjar 2008). Furthermore, by focusing on CSR, companies can communicate their values and express a softer side which stakeholders can relate to, as CSR is a strong contrast to the hardcore business and profit focus of a corporation.
1.1 Problem statement
As CSR has become a competitive parameter, the question is if companies’ approaches to CSR differ?
To confirm or disprove the problem statement, this thesis will, by the means of a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), study corporate websites to determine the discursive and non-discursive similarities and differences found in presentations of approaches to CSR, and how these approaches manifest themselves on corporate websites.On that basis, three research questions have been drawn up:
- Which conventions are there within the genre of CSR on corporate websites? (chapter 6)
- Which similar and different discourses are drawn upon by the orders of discourse used by the selected case companies? (chapter 7)
- What is the explanation for the result of the analysis? (chapter 8)
- if they differ, why?
- if they do not differ, why not?
1.2 Method
Scientifically, this thesis takes a socio-constructive approach. This approach claims that society is a product created by humans, and humansare a product created by society, i.e. humans and society are in a dialectical relationship and influence and constitute each other (Berger 2004: 7-8). According to this approach, language is a central part of understanding and decoding reality, as it is a way of articulating reality (Berger 2004: 72-84). Therefore, it is possible to draw a conclusion about society by analysing texts, and to draw a conclusion about texts by analysing society.This thesis draws a conclusion about society (the CSR context) by analysing texts (articulation of the CSR context) found on corporate websites. Furthermore, this thesis takes an inductive approach, as it usesempirical analysis to draw a general conclusion (Andersen 2003: 39-41).
To answer the problem statement, it is important to establish what makes a CSR approach unique. ‘Uniqueness’ is by Macmillan(2005: 1569) defined as:
Unique /juː่niːk/ adj
1 very special, unusual, or good
2 not the same as anything or anyone else
3 [+to] only existing or happening in one place or situation
- uniqueness noun [U]
Uniquely /juː่niːkli/ adv
in a way that is different from any similar thing or person.
Consequently, to establish how approaches toCSR are unique it is first important to determine what they have in common, as what they do not have in common must be how they differ. In other words, knowing the common characteristics will make it possible to uncover how approaches toCSR differ and how they are unique.
The similarities and differences inthe use of discoursescan be uncovered with an analysis of a text’discursive practice, which is the“processes of text production and consumption” (Jørgensen et al. 2002: 61), i.e. how a text is created by the sender and understood by the receiver. This can uncover how texts differ, as an analysis of the discursive practice can determine the order of discourse, i.e.“sets of conventions associated with social institutions” (Fairclough 2001: 14) that the texts follow. This thesis assumes that CSR texts have their own company specific orders of discourse, i.e. that there are conventions that are specific to each company. However, it is also assumed that CSR texts belong to a more general order of discourse, and that they are influenced by more general conventions. It is the general conventions that are interesting for this thesis, as they are the common characteristics.
An order of discourse draws upon different discourses, which are “particular ways of representing part of the world” (Fairclough 2003: 26). Therefore, it is possible to uncover the conventions and standards found in the general order of discourse by determining which discourses CSR texts have in common. Accordingly, the discourses thatCSR texts have in common are conventional for the communication of CSR on corporate websites (the general order of discourse), whereas the discourses that are only drawn upon by company specific orders of discourse are unique. This is expressed visually in model 1.1 below:
GENERAL ORDER OF DISCOURSECOMPANY SPECIFIC ORDER OF DISCOURSE
DISCOURSE
Drawn upon byall company specific orders of discourse / DISCOURSE
Drawn upon by all company specific orders of discourse / DISCOURSE
Onlydrawn upon byone company specific order of discourse / DISCOURSE
Onlydrawn upon by one company specific order of discourse
Conventional discourses for the general order of discourse / Unconventional and unique discourses for this specific order of discourse
Model 1.1: General order of discourse
Consequently, an analysis and discussion of the discourses used in CSR texts will help answer the problem statement and determine if and how multinationals’ approaches toCSR differ.
1.3Analysis
This thesis uses the concept of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as the main method of analysis. According to Jørgensen et al. (2002: 63), CDA is “‘critical’ in the sense that it aims to reveal the role of discursive practice in the maintenance of the social world, including those social relations that involve unequal relations of power.”This critical aspect is interesting, as CSR can be used to minimise the distance between a large corporation and stakeholders, and is a way for companies to communicate softer values. The critical view will not be a part of the analysis of the social and discursive dimension in this thesis, as these analysesareonly used to identify the discourses and conventions within CSR. However, the critical aspect will be a part of the analysis and discussion of the relationship between the two dimensions (chapter 8).
Furthermore, CDA is relevant, as it includes a social dimension and Jørgensen et al.(2002: 61) claim that “discourse is a form of social practice which both constitutes the social world and is constituted by other social practices,” i.e. the context is influenced by, and has influence on, the discursive practice.Fairclough (2003:25) defines social practice as “articulations of different types of social element which are associated with particular areas of social life,” and the function of social practice is to “articulate discourse (hence language) together with other non-discoursal social elements.” Consequently, an understanding of the context will give an extra perspective to the analysis of the discursive practice, and help to identify the discourses used.[5] Furthermore, an analysis of the social practice will emphasise the different social non-linguistic[6] conventions within the context that have an influence on how the text is consumed and produced (discursive practice).
This thesis uses Norman Fairclough’s approach to CDA (Fairclough 2001),[7] as he, like this thesis, takes asocio-constructive approach(Jørgensen et al. 2002: 4-5). Fairclough (2001: 18-23)introduces a three-dimensional model (section 2.2) which indicates that a text[8]only can be fully understood if both the receiver and the sender understand the context in which the text is created and consumed. Therefore, Fairclough does not only focus on a textual analysis, but also on the influences from the discursive and social practices.Fairclough encourages the integration of other theoretical approaches to determine the non-discursive aspects of the social dimension (Jørgensen et al. 2002: 86), and this is how his approach differs from other approaches within CDA (Jørgensen et al. 2002: 7). To determine the non-discursive aspects of the social dimension, this thesis includes an introduction and discussion of the concept of CSR in the presentation of the context. In addition, the analysis of the discursive practice is supplemented by Vijay K. Bhatia’s (1993) approach to genre analysis, as knowing the conventions in the CSR genre willhelp identify some of the discourse used, and give an explanation to why these discourses are used.
1.4 Delimitation of empirical data and theory
This thesis has several delimitations. The empirical data are limited to CSR texts found on car manufactures’ corporate websites (section 1.4.1), and the theoretical approach is limited to predominantly focusing on Fairclough’s approach to CDA (section 1.4.2) and Bhatia’s approach to genre analysis.
1.4.1 Empirical data
The empirical data used in this thesis are texts found on corporate websites, as a corporate website is a useful tool when companies communicatetheir approach toCSR. Furthermore, three case companies from the car industry have been selected for this study. The reason for selecting the car industry is the fact that companies within this industry have a dual responsibility towards society, i.e. they have a responsibility in that they influence society as a company, but also due to the products they produce. Companies in the car industry have a responsibility as they create job opportunities, cash flow and economic growth; and they can have a positive influence on labour standards, improve living standards and have an impact on the environment, as any other company. At the same time, the products they produce and sell have a negative impact on the environment, as cars running on gas and diesel pollute. Consequently, car manufacturers can show responsibility in several ways, e.g. by focusing on more environmental friendly solutions and by treating their employees well and by making demands of their suppliers in terms of e.g.Human Rights.
By conducting anempirical, qualitative analysis of multiple case studies (Andersen 2003: 150-156), this thesis gives new understanding of communication of CSR within the car industry. For a case company to be relevant for this study, it is important that the given company focuses on CSR on the corporate website. In addition, it is important that the case company includes all aspects of CSR, as the focus of this thesis is on all aspects, and not just on the environment/climate, which is high on the agenda in today’s society.[9]
The case companies, which will be further introduced in chapter 5, are:
Company name / Country of origin / Global corporate websiteBMW AG / Germany /
Toyota Motor Co., Ltd / Japan /
AB Volvo Group / Sweden /
Model 1.2: The case companies
Most companies produce a vast amount of external communication, and even though this thesis only focuses on CSR texts, there is much communication to choose from and to analyse, e.g. sustainability/CSR reports, press releases, corporate websites and movie clips. However, this thesis only focuses on relevant CSR texts found on the case companies’ corporate websites, as it is general information and it focuses on all aspects of CSR important for the given company. Moreover, corporate websites are used by companies to communicate about the company and their CSR initiatives (Coupland 2005: 355).The CSR sections on the case companies’ websites all contain a vast amount of text, and it is in this study not possible to analyse the CSR sections completely (see appendix 3: 1-3, appendix 4: 1-2 and appendix 5: 1 for sitemaps of the case companies’ CSR sections). Furthermore, it is difficult to compare the CSR sections, as they include many different levels and elements. Therefore, this thesis further limits the amount of empiricaldata by only focusing on the three case companies’ sub-subsections which presents their approach to CSR;such a presentation is fundamental for the whole CSR section. In addition, each of the case companies’ CSR sections have such an introduction, and they are partly comparable in size[11] and levels. Consequently, this study only analyses specific subsections of the case companies’ websites, and they are as follows:
Company name / Sections on CSR / Subsections used in this study / AppendixBMW / Responsibility / Principle Sustainability / 3
Toyota / Corporate Responsibility / CSR Initiatives / 4
Volvo / Sustainability / Social Responsibility / 5
Model 1.3: The CSR subsections used in this study
1.4.2 Theory
Even though there are several different approaches to CDA, this thesis limits its focus to Fairclough’s approach, which among other things is the most developed theory and method within the discipline (Jørgensen et al. 2002: 60, 89). Furthermore, Fairclough’s belief that the non-discursive elements in the context influence the production and consumption of a text is relevant for the answering of this thesis’ problem statement, in that it can give an explanation as to why some conventions exist. Furthermore, this thesis limits itself from conducting a full textual analysis, as it only requires an analysis of the social and discursive dimension to answer the problem statement.In addition, the analysis of the discursive dimension predominantly focuses on the sender and the productionof text,and only briefly discusses the receivers (section 6.1.3), as the receivers’ perspective is not the primary focus in this thesis.
To present the analysis of the social dimension, this thesis introduces the concept of CSR, as it is the context. This is done with a general introduction to different schools of CSR, and a specific introduction to Archie B. Carroll’s (1979) approach. This thesis limits its focus to Carroll’s approach, as his CSR pyramid is a simple model, which gives an outline of relevant aspects of CSR, and an understanding of what CSR is. Additionally, the approach is the inspiration to this thesis’ understanding and definition of CSR, as it covers four important aspects and includes a stakeholder dimension (section 4.4). Furthermore, it is one of the most accepted approaches within CSR (Matten et al. 2005: 337, Geva 2008: 10).
To supplement the analysis of the discursive practice, and to identify the conventions within communication of CSR on corporate websites,Bhatia’s (1993) approach to genre analysis is included. Fairclough’s and Bhatia’s views on discourses are very similar. Central to Fairclough’s approach is the fact that the discursive practice and social practice are in a dialectical relationship (Fairclough 2001: 19). Bhatia shares this view, even though he does not define it as a dialectical relationship, but an “essentially complementary” relationship (Bhatia 2004: 21). Their modelsof how to analyse this relationship – Fairclough’s three-dimensional model (Fairclough 2001: 21, section2.2) and Bhatia’s perspectives on written discourse analysis (Bhatia 2004: 19, appendix 6) – are also very similar. They both operate with three dimensions, and both include a textual aspect and a social aspect. However, the models differ in the last dimension, which Fairclough defines as the ‘discursive practice’ and Bhatia defines it as the ‘socio-cognitive space’. Whereas Fairclough’s dimension focuses on how writers and receivers draw on existing discourses and genres to create and understand a text, respectively (Jørgensen et al. 2002: 69), Bhatia’s dimension focuses on discourse as genre, and the conventions that creates the genre (Bhatia 2004: 10). Because of this difference, the two approaches supplement each other well, and a genre analysis will emphasise the discourses used.