12 Week Benchmark Study Guide
Organisms
Characteristics of Living Things (Biology: the study of living things)
Homeostasis – maintaining a balanced internal conditions
Organization - Cells Tissue Organs Organ systems Organism (living thing)
Growth - gets bigger or adds cells or matures
Reproduce - asexual or sexual; making more of one’s species
Energy - organisms must make or obtain energy (food) – ‘metabolism’
Cells - all living things are made of cells or at least one cell (unicellular)
Respond - responding to stimuli such as temperature, pH, needs such as food,….etc.
Viruses - They are NOT alive. They do not meet all of the HOGRECR
- Antibiotics do not kill or help a viral infection such as the common cold or influenza.
- Viruses are not plants, animals, or bacteria, but they are parasites of the living kingdoms.
Classification
Taxonomy - The study of classification!
Aristotle– grouped things by where they lived (environment
Linnaeus – developed our classification system used now...
uses 2Latin words – Binomial Nomenclature
7 levels of Classification
Kingdoms 6 Kingdoms: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protists, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
Phylum Scientific Name -the Genus (capitalized) and Species.
LargeClass
order
tofamily
Genus
smallSpecies Example : Homosapiens orHomo sapiens
Unicellular Multicellular
Eubacteria ArchaebacteriaFungi Plants Animals
Most Protists Algae (Protist)
AutotrophicHeterotrophic
Plants plant-like Protistsanimal-like Protists Fungi (by absorption)
Some chlorophyll containing Bacteriafungi-like Protists Animals (by ingestion)
Bacteria
Producer Consumer Decomposer
Plants algae-like Protists animal-like Protists Fungi-like Protists
Some chlorophyll containing Bacteria Animals Fungi Bacteria
GENETICS
Mendelian Genetics and Meiosis/Mitosis
Asexual ReproductionSexual Reproduction
Binary Fission – bacteria Conjugation of unicellular organism
Cloning – cells External fertilization – like frogs and fish
Budding – like the hydras Internal fertilization – like mammals
Vegetative Propagation - Runners/shoots – like some plants
Alternation of Generations
Fungi – going from asexual producing spores to sexual union of specialized cells
Moss plants – sporophytes that produce spores to gameteophytes making sperm and egg
Mitosis : 1 body (somatic) cell divides to make2 new cells
Diploid (2n) --- Diploid (2n)
Interphase: Prophase: Metaphase: Anaphase: Telophase:
Resting chromosomes chromosome line-up chrosmosomes chromosomes have
(from nuclear division) become visible along the middle begin to separate (pull apart) separated; cell pinches in
DNA replicates or develops a cell plate
Cytokinesis – when animal cells pinch in dividing the cytoplasm in the last stage of mitosis
Meiosis : cell division to create gametes (sex cells: sperm & egg)
-diploid (2n) -- haploid (1n)
-1 cell divides to make 4 haploid cells
*** Crossing over during Prophase I allows more genetic variation!!!
Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I
(crossing over of tetrads) (Homologous Pairs) (homologous pairs separate) (2 haploid cells)
Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II
(chromosomes line up single) (chromatids pull apart) (4 new gamete haploid cells)
When an egg is fertilized by one sperm
it becomes a zygote.
Zygotes go through Mitosis to grow and develop
into a blastula gastrula embryo.
Karyotype– picture of a person’s homologous chromosomes
ex chromosomes:
XX – female XY – male
This karyotype is of an individual with Down Syndrome orTrisomy 21- resulting from
nondisjunction
‘The Father of Genetics’ - Gregor Mendel
An Austrian monk that grew garden peas.
He observed and recorded the factors for flower color, pea color,
and pea texture for several generations.
Three conclusions/laws:
1 - Dominant & Recessive traits
2 – Independent Assortment
3 – Segregation of alleles(during gamete formation)
Humans have 46 (2n) chromosomes in each somatic cell.
- There are 23 Homologous Pairs for each chromosome.
- There are 2 sex chromosomes: XX female & XY male.
- Somatic cells (body cells) are coded for in the autosomes (22 pairs)
Humans have 23 (1n) chromosomes in each gamete.
Alleles – different forms of the same gene (eye colors)
Tetrads are formed in Meiosis - the Homologous pairs become
entangled in a process called synapsis. Crossing over can occur
during this time. (Prophase I)
(It is the Homologous pair that is pulled apart during Anaphase I)
Genotype- the traits (alleles for the trait) are represented by letters (Tt, Aa, BB, dd)
Genotypic ratio is reported in the following order - Homozygous Dominant:Heterozygous: Homozygous Recessive
Phenotype – the appearance of a trait; what the offspring looks like (Tall : short, curly hair : straight hair)
Phenotypic ratio is reported from the Dominant to the Recessive trait showing.
The physical appearance of The physical appearance of
Homozygous Dominant & Heterozygous : Homozygous Recessive
Punnett Square – device showing probability of traits
Parental alleles -gametes (genotype) goes on the outside of the box
Hh Dominant (capital letters) trait will appear (covers any recessive traits)
Recessive (lower case letters) – trait is masked or covered by the dominant.
H Recessive traits only show up it it is homozygous recessive (lower case)
h 1 : 2 : 1 Genotype ratio 3 : 1 Phenotype ratio
HD: HE : HR show trait : don’t show trait
Homozygous Dominant - both capital letters/dominant for genotype (TT , AA, BB)
Heterozygous - One letter is capital/dominant & one is small/recessive (Tt, Aa, Bb)
Homozygous Recessive – both letters are small/recessive (tt, aa, bb)
Pedigrees – graphic organizer showing family & trait occurrence by genotype (Some pedigrees show only phenotypes)
Males Females Homozygous for trait heterozygous for trait
Genetic Conditions
Dominant genesRecessive genesPolygenic traitsMultiple alleles
PolydactylyAlbinismskin colorBlood types
CataractsPKUhair color
ScoliosisCystic Fibrosisheight
Extra ChromosomeMissing ChromosomeSex-influencedSex-linked
Downs SyndromeTurner’s Syndrome baldness Color blind
Hemophilia
Patterns of Inheritance
1. simple dominance (either dominant or recessive)
2. incomplete dominance (blend)
3. codominance (both show)
4. multiple alleles (more than one allele represents a trait - blood types)
5. sex-linked (carried on X – more common in males)
6. polygenic (more than one gene represents a trait)
DNA/RNA Processes
DNA RNA
3 differences between a DNA molecule and a RNA molecule
1. DNA = 2 strands RNA = 1 strand
2. DNA = Deoxyribose sugar RNA = Ribose sugar
3. DNA contains ThymineRNA contains Uracil
DNA Replication
-takes place in Interphase before mitosis
(DNA makes a copy of itself before the cell divides)
Protein Synthesis – (gene expression) produces protein chains as instructed by the DNA
-2 step process (DNA makes a mRNA copy that goes to the cytoplasm and makes proteins)
Transcription Translation
- the DNA makes a mRNA copy- tRNA with corresponding anticodons pair with
- the mRNA leaves the nucleus matching codons on the mRNA and release amino acid
(the code is rewritten) - rRNA (ribosomes) assemble amino acids into the
-RNA can not make Thymine protein (polypeptide) chain
so...Adenine pairs with Urasil (the code is made into a working protein)
Guanine pairs with Cytosine