Chapter 39 - the Stormy Sixties 1960-1968

Published on Course-Notes.Org (

Home > Chapter 39 - The Stormy Sixties 1960-1968

Chapter 39 - The Stormy Sixties 1960-1968

Major Themes

The Kennedy administration’s “flexible response” doctrine to combat communism bore ill fruit in Cuba and Vietnam. Johnson’s escalation of the war failed while growing domestic opposition finally forced from power
Johnson’s Great Society and the civil rights movement brought a tide of liberal social reform that was undermined in part by the Vietnam War

Major Questions

Were the cultural upheavals of the 1960s a result of political crises or the inevitable results of affluence and the “baby boom?

These "upheavals" were a little of both. There were many political crises, such as Vietnam, the peaceful protests for civil rights, Black Power violence, and outspoken student protests, that caused some "upheaval." The passing of the Civil Rights Act, among other things, was an obvious example. However, because the "baby boomers" and the general prosperity were something a little bit different, some of the upheaval of this time period were caused simply because it was unique. The increased "boom'd" population led to different reactions to political occurances, and the affluence of the time did the same. See The Cultural Upheavals of the 1960s for more details!!

Outline

Kennedy’s New Frontier Spirit

Kennedy was elected and took office on January 20, 1961
Was the youngest president ever elected, and the first Catholic
young and suave
his brother, the 35 year old Robert, was attorny general
Robert tried to fix the FBI, which wasn't doing enough to stop organized crime and wasn't helping the civil rights movement very little
Robert S. McNamara left the presidency of the Ford Motor Comapany and took over the Defense Department
inspired high expectations, esp. among youths
created the Peace Corps which would help out underdeveloped countries
was educated at Harvard and so were many of his cabinet; they all "radiated confidence"

The New Frontier at Home

Fragile Democaratic majorities in Congress
expanded the House Rules Committee
Needed more people, or else the (majority) Conservatives would shoot down all his plans
hard for him to pass New Frontier legislation, including medical assistance to the aged and increased federal aid to education
Another problem was the economy
campaigned on the theme of revitalizing the economy
drew the line at inflation
His administration made steel-company owrkers' wages go up, and assumed that the corporations' prices would stay the same (1962)
The companies raised their prices anyways, and Kennedy "yelled at them" (to put it in polite terms)
they backed down soon afterwards
made rest of the big businesses angry
made tax cuts and put more money into private hands instead of the government
"the most Republican speech since McKinley"
Promoted a project into going to the moon
would help stimulate the economy w/ billions of dollars being spent
would help American military strategy
would increase American scientific prestige

Rumblings in Europe

A few months after settling into the White House JFK met with Khrushchev in June 1961
Khrushchev was belligerent and threatened to make a treaty with East Germany cutting off Western access to Berlin
But the President would not be bullied by the Soviets
The Soviets backed off of their most bellicose threats but began the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961
The concrete and barbed-wire barrier was designed to plug the heavy population drain from East to West Germany
Kennedy turned his attention to Western Europe
Now prospering due to the Marshall Plan and Common Market
In 1962 the Trade Expansion Act cut tariffs up to 50% to all members of the Common Market in order to promote trade
The Common Market trade system wasn't accepted by France
Charles de Gaulle was suspicious of American intentions in Europe
Wanted the US out of all European affairs

Foreign Flare-ups and “Flexible Response”

World-wide decolonization created problems for US foreign policy
The US was funding the UN which was becoming dominated by the numerous small nations of Africa and Asia
Funded the UN interactions in the Congo
The country of Laos was freed from France in 1954
This jungle kingdom could serve as a river for communism to spread in to all of SE Asia
Kennedy's advisors recommended sending in US troops
Realized that he had too little forces while remaining in Western Europe
Kennedy sought a diplomatic escape in the 14th power Geneva conference
Imposed a shaky peace on Laos in 1962
Kennedy decided to push for a "flexible response" strategy
Developed an array of military options for all possible crisises
Added $ to military forces as well as Special Forces (Green Berets)

Stepping into the Vietnam Quagmire

"Flexible Response" seemed like a good idea, but it had problesm in it
It kind of made it easier to start shooting than to be diplomatic
Allowed more use of force
See Vietnam
Ngo Dinh Diem's government in Saigon was corrupt and not running very well
America had poured in $ to keep it going and stave off communism, but it was not very sturdy ever since the creation of North and South Vietnam
1961- Kennedy orders more troops to Vietnam
The point of sending in troops was to allow Diem more time to make social reforms while protecting his government from communism
Diem wouldn't cooperate, so the US encouraged an overthrow (by anyone other than the communists) in 1963
This led to "political desintegration" and the collapse of South Vietnam
Kennedy told the vietnamese it was "their war" and made commitments that made a simple "pullout" almost impossible

Cuban Confrontations

Latin America was starting to resent the US
1961- Kennedy made the Allianec for Progres, which was supposed to be the Marshall Plan for Latin America
Hoped to minimize gap between rich and poor and prevent communism
It didn't work so well (not enough positive impact)
There was a plan to overthrow Castro by invading Cuba with exiles
These exiles would be trained/armed by America, and would start an uprising from the people of Cuba
April 17, 1961- Bay of Pigs
US isn't part of direct intervention, and the old aircrafts of the exiles couldn't fight against Castro's more modern ones
There was no "popular uprising" form the people
The exiles were forced to surrender
Most went to jail, while some were traded for humanitarian supplies
Kennedy took full responsibility
America kept trying to get rid of Castro, and he became MORE communist
In 1962, it was discovered that Khrushchev was putting nuclear missles in Cuba
It was assumed that these weapons would be used to blackmail the US into doing what the USSR needed
Kennedy refused to bomb the missile-launching sites, so:
October 22, 1962: Made a "naval quarantine" of Cuba
Ordered that the weapons be removed
Told Khrushchev that any attack from Cuba would be directly related to USSR, and retaliation would be aimed at Russia
For about a week, there was some serious tension (understatement) but it was resolved
October 28: Khrushchev took the missiles out of Cuba in exchange for the end of the quarantine and no invasion from the US
US agreed to remove missiles in Turkey that were aimed at USSR
Results of the Cuban Missile Crisis:
Khrushchev was "kicked out" of his Kremlin position
Russia started huge military expansion
This led to a game of "catch-up" in America
Democrats did well in next election because REpublicans had been "Cubanized"
Kennedy started to push harder for a "no nuclear testing" treaty with the USSR
1963: A treaty was signed that prevented trial nuclear explosions
A Moscow-Washington teletype line was set up to allow immediate communication
1963: Kennedy made a speech at the American University in D.C.
Encouraged Americans to stop w

The Struggle for Civil Rights

Kennedy had campaignede with a strong appeal to black voters but proceeded gingerly to redeem his promises
He had pledged to eliminate racial discrimination in housing "with a stroke of the pen" but it took him almost two years to do so
Political concerns stayed the president's hand on civil rights. Kennedy needed the support of southern legislation to pass his economic and social legislation, esp. his medical and educational bills.
He believed that those measures would eventually benefit black Americans at leat as much as special legislation on civil rights. Bold moves for racial justice would have to wait
After the wave of sit-ins across the South in 1960, groups of Freedom Riders fanned out to end segregation in facilities serving interstate bus passangers.
A white mob torched a Freedom Ride bus in May 1961 and Attorney General Robert Kennedy's personal representative was beaten unconcious in another anti-Freedom Ride riot in Montgomery.
Washington dispatched federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders.
The Kennedys proved ultra-wary about the political associates of Martin Luther King Jr.
Fearful of embarassing revelations that some of King's advisors had communist affiliations Robert Kennedy ordered FBI director J. Edgar Hoover to wiretap King's phone in late 1963
Encouraged by Robert Kennedy and with financial backing from Kennedy-prodded private foundations, SNCC and other civil rights groups inaugurated a Voter Education Project to register the Souths historically disfranchised blacks.
Some southern universities desegregated painlessly but the University of Mississippi became a volcano
A 29 air force veteran encountered violent opposition when he attempted to register in Oct. 1962.
President Kennedy was forced to send in 400 federal marshals and 3000 troops to enroll him in his first class
In 1963 Martin Luther King Jr. launched a campaign against discrimination in Birmingham, Alabama
Although blacks constituted nearly half of the citys pop. they made up fewer than %15 of the citys voters.
Peaceful civil rights marchers were repeatedly repelled by police with attack dogs and electric cattle prods.
High pressure water hoses were directed at civil rights demonstraters even.
Kennedy called the civil rights situation a moral issue and committed his personal and presidential prestige to finding a solution
He called for new civil rights legislation to protect black citizens.
In Aug. 1963 King led 200,000 black and white demonstraters on a peaceful "March on Washington" in support of the proposed legislation.
The violence still continued

The Killing of Kennedy

November 22, 1963. Violence was haunting America in the mid-1960s
Dallas, Texas, JFK was in an open limo when he was shot in the brain & died in seconds
the alleged assassin was Lee Harvey Oswald who was shot to death in front of TV cameras by a self-appointed avenger: Jack Ruby
Chief Justice Warren's offical investigation couldn't quiet doubts and theories about what really happened
Vice President LBJ was sworn in on a plane back to Washington w. Kennedy's body
though he distrusted Kennedy's team, he kept most of them and continued to follow JFK's policies
The whole nation was in mourning, realizing just how great the young buck was
he was in office for approx. 1000 days
he was remembered more for his ideals and spirit than the major goals he achieved
he had busted the myth that a Catholic could not be trusted w. the Presidency
In later years, his reputation was tarnished when his womanizing and involvment w/ organized crime figures were revealed
Yet, he was still remembered for his awesomeness [vigor, charisma, idealism] and inspired a later generation of leaders like Bill Clinton [elected in 1992]

The LBJ Brand on the Presidency

6 foot 3 Texan Lyndon Baines Johnson was the new President
was first sent to Washington in 1937 as a 29 yr old congressman
saw FDR as his policial "daddy", he seriously supported New Deal actions
but when he lost a Senate race in 1937, he realized that liberal politics do not get you votes in Texas, so he leaned to the right and won a seat in the Senate by a landslide ["Landslide Lyndon"]
"Masterful wheeler-dealer" in the Senate
gave the "Johnson Treatment": backslapping, flesh-pressing (?), arm-twisting to friend and foe
Democratic majority leader in 1954, gaining power secondary to then-Pres. Eisenhower
LBJ's ego and vanity were legendary
the Pope gave him a 14th century painting from the Vatican art collection; LBJ gave him a bust [sculpture/painting from basically the shoulders & up]
when he became President he was able to show his true liberal colors
Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964
banned racial discrimination in most private facilities open to the public, inclu. theatres, hospitals & restaurants
strengthened fed. gov't's power to end segregation in schools and other public places
created the Equal Emplyment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to elimiate discrimitation during job hirings
conservatives tried to add sexual discrimination to the bill but it backfired
but the act's Title VII passed w/ the sexual clause
the bill would prove to be a powerful instrument of federally enforced gender & racial equality
1965 LBJ issued and executive order for all federal contractors to take "affirmitave action" against discrimination
LBJ really pushed JFK's stalled tax bill thru Congress & added proposals of his own for a billion $ "War of Poverty"
LBJ showed special concerned for Appalchia where the sickness from the soft-coal industry had left 10s of 1000s of mnt. folk the human slag heap
LBJ dubbed his crusade for betterness th "Great Society"
a bunch of New Dealish economic & welfare measures to transform American life
LBJ's war on poverty was inspired by Michal Harrington's The Other America (1962) which revealed how 20% of "affluent America" 's population (over 40% of the black population) suffered in PoVeRtY

Johnson Battles Goldwater in 1964

In election of 1964 Johnson was nominated by the Democrats and the Republican nominee was Barry Goldwater.
Goldwater attacked the federal income tax, the Social Security system, the Tennessee Valley Authority, civil rights legislation, the nuclear test-ban treaty, and most loudly, the Great Society.
Democrats exploited the image of Goldwater as a trigger happy cowboy who would "Barry us" in the debris of World War II
Johnson seized upon the Tonkin Gulf episode early in Aug. 1964
2 American destroyers were allegedly fired upon by th North Vietnamese on Aug 2 and 4, although exactly what happened still remains unclear. Johnson promptly called the attack "unprovoked" and moved swiftly to make political hay out of the episode
He ordered a "limited" retaliatory air raid against Norht Vietnamese bases
Johnson also used the incident to spur conressional passage of the all-purpose Tonkin Gulf Resolution
Johnson rode to a spectacular victory in November 1964

The Great Society Congress

Johnson’s victory smashed the conservative congressional coalition (Southern Democrats and Northern Republicans)
Much legislation was passed, only comparable to the One Hundred Days Congress (1933)
The growing economy made Johnson feel he could deliver Democratic promises of social reform
Escalating the war on poverty, Congress doubled the funds for the Office of Economic Opportunity to $2 Billion
Johnson also convinced Congress to create two new cabinet offices
The Department of Transportation
The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
Other laws established the National Endowments for the Arts and Humanities
Designed to lift the level of American cultural life
Johnson gave educational aid directly to the students instead of the schools
LBJ signed this education bill in the humble one room Texas schoolhouse that he attended
Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor, became reality in 1965
Welcomed by millions without medical insurance
Much like the New Deal Programs of FDR

**Improved the lives of millions but undermined the Federal Government’s financial health

Immigration and Nationality Acts of 1965 abolished the 1921 quota system
Doubled the number of immigrants admitted annually
Set a limit on immigration from the Western Hemisphere (120,000)
Allowed the admission of US citizens’ close relatives
Changed the ethnic composition of the United States
The Great Society programs were attacked and conservatives said that billions of dollars were wasted
The Poverty rate declined measurably
The elderly became richer due to Medicare
Educational performance increased
Overall general health conditions improved greatly

Battling for Black Rights

Johnson passed the Voting rights bill of 1965 to try and lessen the evil of racial discrimination
Segregation in the south was weakening especially from the Civil Rights Act of 1964 however voting issues still persisted
Throughout the south very few of those blacks eligible to vote got registered
Mainly because of scare tactics used by kkk and many acts of violence
Also used poll taxes and literacy tests
In January 1964 the 24th ammendment was passed forbidding the poll tax
In 1965 Martin Luther King Jr resumed his fight for voter registration in alabama
A peaceful march of his was attacked by State troopers and one was killed
After this violence president Johnson gave an address to the people about overcoming the blight of bigotry and injustice
After this address he passed the voting rights act of 1965 banning literacy tests
Black southerners now had huge political power and they used it

Combating Communism in Two Hemispheres

Dominicans rose in revolt against their military gov't in 1965
Johnson announced that the Dominican Republic was the target of a Castrolike coup by "communist conspirators" and he dispatched some 25000 American troops
But the evidence of a communist takeover was fragmentary at best
Viet Cong guerrillas attacked an American air base at Pleiku, South Vietnam in Feb. 1965
The president ordered retaliatory bombing raids against military installations in North Vietnam and for the first time ordered attacking U.S. troops to land.
By the middle of March 1965 the Americans had "Operation Rolling Thunder" in full swing.
regular full-scale bombing attacks against North Vietnam
Before 1965 ended some 184000 American troops were involved most of them slogging through the jungles and ridce paddies of South Vietnam.
Aerial bombardment actually strengthened the communists will to resist.
The enemy matched every increase in American firepower with more men and more wiliness in the art of guerrilla warfare
The war became increasingly Americanized.

Victory for Nixon