Chapter 20 Outline – The Muslim Empires
IV. The Early Modern Era
E. The Muslim Empires
1. The Ottomans: From Frontier Warriors to Empire Builders
- Mongols defeated Abbasid caliphate and also Seljuk Turk empire in Asia Minor (Turkey) in 1200s, opening door for other Turkish nomadic groups to come to area to fight for power
· Ottoman Empire = became major power in Asia Minor (Turkey) by 1350
· From Asia Minor (Turkey), the Ottomans quickly spread out to rule the Balkans (S.E. Europe)
- Mehmed II = Ottoman leader, who in 1453, defeated the Byzantine Empire at Constantinople
- Ottomans soon expanded from S.E. Europe into Middle East and North Africa, so they ruled majority of Arab world, and were constantly a source of worry for the rest of Europe
a. A State Geared to Warfare
- Warfare and expansion were stressed in the Ottoman Empire
· Ottomans known for great cavalry, and they became top social class (warrior aristocracy)
· Eventually, warrior class was left out of central bureaucracy, but still dominated regional governments, and competed with the central bureaucracy for power
- Janissaries = Ottoman army units, consisted of soldiers who were conscripted (forced) as boys from conquered areas of the Balkans
· Most important part of military b/c they controlled the artillery and firearms
· Eventually they gained political power after 1400s (by mid-1500s they were so powerful, they could depose of the sultan (leader of Ottoman Empire) and select his replacement)
b. The Sultans and Their Court
- Ottoman rulers (sultans) were absolute monarchs, and early on, Ottoman rule was efficient
- Over time, sultans became more isolated, and their rule became less absolute and less efficient
· Lived in marble palaces, surrounded by much corrupt behavior
· Had several wives and concubines, and became engrossed in hedonistic behaviors
· Sultans surrounded by harem of women, who constantly tried to advance their sons careers
· Much corruption took place, further weakening the efficient rule
· Vizier = Title for head of the Ottoman bureaucracy, often had more power than the sultan
- Just like previous Muslim dynasties, Ottomans did not establish a clear line of succession to the throne, so when a sultan would die, there would be great confusion and civil wars over succession
c. Constantinople Restored and the Flowering of Ottoman Culture
- Ottomans (like Byzantines) had capital at Constantinople and restored it to its former glory
· Built mosques and palaces, aqueducts to supply growing city with water, reopened markets (Constantinople had great bazaars with merchandise from around the world), and also repaired the cities defenses
· Coffeehouses became a major part of cultural life in the city – people met at these and did business, played chess, smoke tobacco, gossip, etc.
- Merchant and artisan class was prominent in Ottoman society
· Government closely monitored merchant activity (even had government inspectors who regulated and watched over businesses)
· Workers formed many guilds (had even more than they did in western Europe)
- Persian and Arabic language used in law and religion, but Turkish became main language of empire
· Ottomans overshadowed by Persians and Indians in literature and fine arts
· Ottomans had greatest achievements in architecture (but also made strides in poetry, ceramics, and carpet making)
d. The Problem of Ottoman Decline
- First 400 years of Ottoman rule was efficient and powerful, but last 200 years saw long decline
· Beginning in the late 1600s, the long, slow decline of the Ottoman Empire began
· Even at its height, Ottoman empire to large to be maintained given technology of the time
- Ottoman Empire had been built through war and expansion
· When there was no more land for expansion, and as land in the empire began breaking away, there was no way to maintain the oversized bureaucracy, and there was much corruption by Ottoman officials, and many local officials further distanced themselves from central rule
· These local rulers often squeezed peasants for more tax revenue, leading to peasant revolts
- Ottomans stopped training future sultans (used to give them an area to rule as training, but began keeping them locked in palaces so they would be safe), which led series of poor leaders
· These rulers (who were often addicted to drugs and the harem life-style) were not like early Ottoman rulers, who were powerful warrior emperors who ruled efficiently
· As result of corruption and poor rule, the discipline of the armies suffered
e. Military Reverses and the Ottoman Retreat
- Ottoman Empire failed to keep up technologically with Europe and fell further behind, especially in trade ad warfare
· Ottomans rose to power largely through use of artillery and firearms, but they failed to adapt to new, light field artillery the Europeans began using in the 1600s, and thus began losing battles
· Strong Ottoman navy soon surpassed by Europe (lost Battle of Lepanto in 1571 to Spain, signaling end of Ottoman naval dominance on Mediterranean)
· Portuguese navy dominated trade in Africa and Indian Ocean, which led to more wealth for Europe and more decline for Ottomans
· With trade now being done by water (around Africa), the Middle East was no longer a center of trade, which further hurt Ottomans
· Ottomans got influx of silver from Spain’s American empire, led to inflation and hurt economy
2. The Shi’ite Challenge of the Safavids
- Like Ottomans, the Safavids arose from struggles b/t Turkish groups following Mongol invasion
· Like Ottomans, the Safavids were frontier warriors
· Major reason the Safavids came to power was that they were Shi’ite Muslims, while Ottomans were Sunni Muslims
· Safavid dynasty originated from Sufi mystics, one of which, Sail-al-Din, began a military campaign to purify Islam and spread it amongst all the Turkish tribes
· Red Heads = Followers of the Safavids, were Shi’ite, which created much enemies amongst their Sunni neighbors
- Isma’il = Conquered city of Tabriz (1501) and became 1st Safavid emperor
· Safavids quickly conquered most of Persia (Iran) under leadership of Isma’il
- In 1514, huge battle between Ottomans and Safavids occurred at Chaldiran, with Ottomans winning
· Ottomans had better weapons (muskets and field cannons) and Safavid cavalry was no match
· Ottomans unable to totally finish off Safavids, and they regrouped, but the loss at Chaldiran ended Safavid hopes of more territorial expansion
· Safavid loss also slowed down the rapid conversions to Shi’ite Islam that had been occurring
a. Politics and War Under the Safavid Shahs
- A huge power struggle erupted over successor to Isma’il, as different Safavid groups backed different sons of Isma’il, and also many Turkish chiefs tried to seize power
- Two important Safavid leaders:
· Tahmasp I (1534-1576) = Restored Safavid empire to its former glory, drove out Turkish chiefs vying for power
· Shah Abbas I (Abbas the Great) (1587-1629) = Under his rule, Safavid empire reached height of its power, , captured Russian boys to create slave armies (these slave armies controlled the firearms in Safavid empire), and used Western ideas to improve army
- The Turkish chiefs who had been fighting for power were made into warrior nobility and assigned villages to rule (same thing the Ottomans had done)
· Some Turkish warrior elites became part of the increasing central bureaucracy, where they competed for power with Persians as well as the Russian slave-soldiers who had gained power
b. State and Religion
- Under Safavid reign, the Persian (Iranian) people developed a sense of nationalism and unity
· Safavid rulers claimed to be imams (they could trace descent to one of successors of Ali) which enhanced their Shi’i status
· Mullahs = local mosque officials used by Safavid rulers to convert all of the Safavid population to Shi’ite, and to enhance power of the Safavid government
· By stressing Shi’ite traditions (like visiting Shi’i holy shrines such as at Karbala in Iraq) the Safavids created a sense of Iranian identity and unity that was different from its neighbors
c. Elite Affluence and Artistic Splendor
- Abbas the Great tried to make Safavid empire the center of international trade and Islamic culture
· He had roads and rest houses built, and protected travelers and merchants
· Isfahan = Safavid capital under Abbas the Great, carefully planned out and example of Safavid architecture (had colleges and many publicly financed workshops)
· Mosques best showed off Safavid architecture - used vividly colored ceramic tiles, floral patterns, verses from Quran engraved on walls, and surrounded by gardens w/reflecting pools
d. Society and Gender Roles: Ottoman and Safavid Comparisons
- Despite political and religious differences, Ottoman and Safavid social systems were similar
- Both dominated early on by warrior aristocracy which shared power with absolute monarchs
· These warrior aristocrats gradually were moved from central government to rule over rural estates (making life difficult for peasants, who would often uprise or flee)
- Both Ottoman and Safavid rulers encouraged trade and handicraft production
· Both patronized public works projects that provided jobs for artisans
· Both encouraged trade, though Ottomans had advantage over Safavids b/c of the Jews and Christians in Ottoman empire who had contacts with overseas traders
· Though Ottoman’s ahead of Safavids in trade and handicraft, they were behind Europeans, who were about to enter into the Industrial Revolution (Ottoman manufacturing way behind)
- Women in Ottoman and Safavid society had worse status than most civilizations in history
· Women subordinate to father and husband, had little outlet for scholarly or artistic expression, and seclusion and veiling became common, especially amongst elite women
e. The Rapid Demise of the Safavid Empire
- The collapse of the Safavid Empire was stunningly rapid
· Abbas the Great was fearful of an overthrow, so he killed or blinded all who could succeed him
· After Abbas died, powerful state officials chose a weak grandson of his to be shah (wanted somebody they could control), beginning period of weak rulers and internal disputes
· In 1722, Afghani tribes conquered Isfahan and ended the Safavid empire
· Nadir Khan Afshar = tried to resurrect the Safavid dynasty in 1736 by declaring himself shah, but it was short-lived, and soon the Safavid dynasty was gone forever
3. The Mughals and the Apex of Muslim Civilization in India
- Babur = A descendant of Turkish warriors, he founded the Mughal dynasty in India in 1526
· When Babur died in 1530, one of his sons, Humayan, became king
· As soon as Humayan named successor, one of his brothers challenged him for the right to rule, and foreign invaders from Afghanistan and the Rajput states in western India caused Humayan to have to flee (which he did, going to Persia and protected by Safavids for about 10 years)
· In1556, Humayan was able to reconquer Delhi and once again give Mughals control of India
a. Akbar and the Basis for a Lasting Empire
- Akbar (1542-1605) = Son and successor to Humayan (became ruler at 13 years old), Akbar proved to be one of greatest leaders in all of history, tried to unite India, built a well-trained military and effective administrative system to sustain Mughal rule
· Akbar’s armies gained more territory in north and central India
· Akbar was supporter of the arts, and had intellectual debates with scholars from around world
· Akbar tried to unify India by having Mughals (Muslims) be tolerant of Hindus – promoted intermarriage of Muslims and Hindus, abolished the jizya (tax on non-believers), promoted Hindus to highest ranks of government, and even ordered Muslims to respect cows
· Din-i-Ilahi = new religion created by Akbar to unite Muslims and Hindus and thus unite India (the religion was rejected by members of both religions, and never caught on)
- Like Ottomans and Safavids, Mughals gave warrior elites estates to rule (these local rulers given land and control over their peasants in return for collecting taxes and sending them to Mughal rulers
· Akbar allowed some Hindus to maintain rule over villages, as long as they were loyal and paid taxes to the Mughals
b. Social Reform and Social Change
- Akbar pushed for many social reforms including improving the calendar, establishing shelters for homeless beggars, and regulating the consumption of alcohol
- Akbar pushed for reforms for women
· He encouraged widows to remarry, discouraged child marriage, and tried to end sati (women throwing themselves on the pyres of their husbands body)
· He even tried to provide relief for women who were secluded in their homes, encouraging merchants to set aside special market days for women
· But women still very subordinate in Indian society
c. Mughal Splendor and Early European Contacts
- Mughal India reached its peak during Akbar’s reign and that of his immediate successors
· Europeans traveling to India marveled at the great cities of Delhi, Agra, and Lahore
· By the late 1600s, India became a major destination of European traders (Europeans wanted India’s famed cotton textiles)
d. Artistic Achievement in the Mughal Era
- Akbar’s successors (Jahangir and Shah Jahan) retained most of Akbar’s policies, but weren’t as interested in politics and conquest, instead choosing to enjoy the good life
· Both enjoyed alcohol, female dancers, polo matches, tiger or elephant fights, and grand ceremonies and dress, and both patronized the arts, especially paintings
· Taj Mahal = most famous architectural achievement in Mughal India
· Mughal architecture blended Persian (domes, arches) and Hindu (ornaments) styles, using white marble instead of ceramic tiles like Persians had used
e. Court Politics and the Position of Elite and Ordinary Women
- Jahangir and Shah Jehan both left the day-to-day administration to subordinates, and in both cases, their wives took advantage to gain power
· Nur Jahan = Jahangir’s wife, gained power and packed the court with her male relatives, she spent a lot on pomp and luxury, and donated much to charities