Chapter 12: The Presidency 1
CHAPTER 12
The Presidency
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:
1.Define the key terms at the end of the chapter
2.List the powers and duties of the president as set forth in the Constitution
3.Describe the sources of power outside the Constitution that presidents have used to expand the authority of the office, including congressional delegation of powers
4.Outline the components and duties of the offices that make up the Executive Office of the President
5.Identify the three advisory systems that support the president and give an example of each
6.Explain why modern presidents are more likely to rely on the White House staff than on the cabinet for advice on policymaking
7.Define and discuss the various aspects of a president’s ability to persuade
8.Explain why presidential popularity usually declines while a president is in office
9.Explain why there is often divided government, and tell how it affects the president’s ability to carry out his perceived mandate
10.Explain what is meant by describing the president as “chief lobbyist”
11.Compare and contrast specific features of the U.S. president against those of the prime minister of Great Britain
12.Discuss the changes that are now occurring in the president’s role as a world leader
13.Identify four objectives of the president in international relations and foreign policy
14.Describe the special skills presidents need for crisis management
Chapter Synopsis
War, and a president’s ability to engage the United States in it, still causes arguments about many of the same things that the authors of the Constitution debated. The powers of the presidency still concern us. What powers belong to the president? Although some are quite clear from the Constitution, claims of inherent powers have led to many controversies during our history. How past presidents have expanded the powers of the office is key to understanding the nature of the modern presidency.
In exercising leadership, the president has the resources of the executive branch to draw on. None of these is more important than his personal staff. More broadly, he draws upon the Executive Office of the President and his cabinet. The task of presidential leadership is to translate a political vision into a concrete agenda and then to persuade the public and Congress to support legislation that furthers that agenda.
The president is perceived as a popularly elected leader, and his political skills are critical for putting together a winning electoral coalition. The need to win favor with the public does not end with the election. A president’s popularity affects his standing with Congress and his overall ability to lead.
Candidates who successfully put together an electoral coalition and win the presidency inevitably claim to have received a mandate from the public. In recent years their ability to carry out the perceived mandate has been made more difficult by divided control of government.
The president is a world leader, too, and his skills at crisis management and diplomacy will affect the success of his administration. The way a president handles both crisis and non-crisis decision making in the White House is often influenced by his “presidential character.”
Parallel Lecture 12.1
I.The Constitutional basis of presidential power
A.Initial conceptions of the presidency
1.Delegates to the Constitutional Convention were wary of unchecked power.
a)The Articles of Confederation had failed in part because of lack of a strong national executive.
b)Task: provide national leadership without the opportunity for tyranny.
2.Delegates initially approved a single executive chosen by Congress for a seven-year term, ineligible for re-election.
3.Final structure reflected “checks and balances” philosophy
B.The powers of the president
1.Requirements for the presidency
a)U.S.-born citizen
b)At least thirty-five years old
c)Have lived in the United States for at least fourteen years
2.Duties and powers of the president
a)Act as administrative head of the nation
b)Act as commander in chief of the military
c)Convene Congress
d)Veto legislation
e)Appoint various officials
f)Make treaties
g)Grant pardons
II.The expansion of presidential power
A.Formal powers
1.Constitution involves president in policymaking process through veto power, reporting to Congress on state of the Union, and role as commander in chief
2.Presidents have become more aggressive in their use of these powers.
a)Much greater use of veto power over time
b)Expected that presidents will enter office with clear policy goals and work with Congress to pass legislation
c)Presidents use commander in chief power to enter into foreign conflicts without formal declaration of war.
B.Inherent powers
1.Inherent Powers: authority claimed by the president that is not clearly specified in the Constitution; typically these powers are inferred from the Constitution.
a)Forces Congress and the courts to either acquiesce or restrict action
b)Success in claiming a new power leaves legacy of permanent expansion of presidential authority.
2.Executive orders: presidential directives that create or modify laws and public policies, without the direct approval of Congress.
a)Power to issue an executive order not explicitly granted in Constitution
b)Presidents issue orders by arguing they may take actions in the best interest of the nation so long as they are not directly prohibited.
c)Executive orders are issued for a wide variety of purposes.
d)Important policymaking tool for presidents
e)Allow the president to act quickly and decisively
f)May be overturned by congressional bill or court challenge
3.Executive agreement: similar to executive order, but used in foreign policy.
C.Congressional delegation of power
1.Delegation of powers: the process by which Congress gives the executive branch the additional authority needed to address new problems.
a)Example: Congress delegated power to FDR to deal with the problems of the Great Depression.
b)Used when Congress concludes government needs flexibility in its approach to a problem
2.Congress can enact legislation to reassert Congressional authority.
III.The executive branch establishment
A.The Executive Office of the President
1.The president depends heavily on key aides.
a)Many in the inner circle are longtime associates.
b)White House Office: the president’s personal staff.
c)Chief of Staff: may be first among equals or the unquestioned leader of the staff.
d)National Security Adviser: provides daily briefings on foreign and military affairs.
e)Council of Economic Advisers: reports on the state of the economy and advises how to promote economic growth.
f)Senior domestic policy advisers: advise on health, education, and social services.
2.Below the top aides are the large staffs that serve them and the president.
a)Executive Office of the President: the president’s executive aides and their staffs; the extended White House executive establishment.
b)Includes the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and other specialized staff
c)Employs almost sixteen hundred people; annual budget $374 million
3.Major types of presidential advisory systems
a)Competitive management style (example: FDR)
(1)Advisers have overlapping authority and differing points of view.
(2)Allows president to hear all sides of an argument and still be the final decision maker
b)Hierarchical staff model (example: Eisenhower)
(1)Clear lines of authority; mirrors military command
(2)President does not participate in details of policy discussion
c)Collegial staffing arrangement (example: Bill Clinton)
(1)Loose staff structure that gives many staffers access to the president
(2)Immerses president in the details of policymaking
d)Presidents tend to choose system that best suit their personality
e)Most presidents use a combination of styles.
f)Presidents must ensure staff members feel comfortable telling him things he doesn’t want to hear.
(1)Groupthink: when staffers reach consensus without considering all sides of an issue.
(2)Not easy to tell the president he is misguided
B.The vice president
1.Most important duty of vice president is to take over the presidency in case of presidential death, disability, impeachment, or resignation
2.Has traditionally carried out political chores: campaigning, fundraising, etc.
a)Often vice presidential selection have more to do with politics
b)Vice presidents are often chosen because they appeal to different geographic region or party coalition than the president
3.Trend toward presidents relying more heavily on vice presidents in policymaking
C.The cabinet
1.Cabinet: a group of presidential advisers; the heads of the executives departments, and other key officials.
2.Has expanded greatly, reflecting increased government responsibility and intervention
3.The cabinet is not used as a collective decision-making body.
a)Cabinet is rather large
b)Most cabinet members have limited areas of expertise and cannot contribute to the discussion in other areas.
c)President chooses cabinet members for a range of reasons, not necessarily because they are close to him
d)The White House staff offers most of the advisory support the president needs.
e)Cabinet secretaries may be pulled in different directions by the president and by their clientele groups.
IV.Presidential leadership
A.Leadership is a function of president’s own character and skill and the current political environment
B.Presidential character
1.Difficult to judge character, but it does matter
a)LBJ: feared his masculinity being questioned, so did not exit Vietnam
b)Nixon: fear of “enemies” nurtured climate that created Watergate break-in and cover-up
c)Clinton: actions with Monica Lewinsky led to impeachment, but not conviction
2.Voters claim to care about traits like competence, integrity, and empathy.
C.The president’s power to persuade
1.Neustadt, Presidential Power: “Presidential power is the power to persuade”
a)Presidents must depend on others’ cooperation to get things done.
b)Critical presidential abilities
(1)Bargaining
(2)Dealing with adversaries
(3)Choosing priorities
2.President’s political skills can affect outcomes in Congress
a)Presidential influence takes place “at the margins.”
b)Can be enough to affect the outcome of closely fought legislation
3.President’s influence is related to professional reputation and prestige
a)If Congress defeats or weakens a priority bill, president’s reputation is hurt
b)Controversial bills are a big risk.
D.The President and the public
1.A popular president is more persuasive than an unpopular president.
a)Public support is a resource in the bargaining process
b)Members of Congress have more incentive to cooperate with a popular president.
2.Efforts to mobilize public support
a)Televised addresses, remarks to reporters, and public appearances allow the president to speak to the people.
b)“Going public”: situations where the president forces compliance from fellow Washingtonians by going over their heads to appeal to constituents.
3.Presidents pay close attention to their standing in public opinion polls.
a)“Honeymoon period”: the first year a president is in office, when approval ratings are their highest.
b)Presidents with low approval ratings at re-election time tend not to win re-election.
4.Fluctuations in presidential popularity
a)Public approval is affected by economic conditions.
b)President is affected by major events that occur during his presidency.
c)Presidents typically lose popularity when involved in a war with heavy casualties.
5.Leading by courting public opinion has considerable risks.
a)Presidents are left vulnerable if support does not materialize.
b)Also need to be able to form bipartisan coalitions and broad interest group coalitions
6.Concern with public opinion can be defended as furthering majoritarian democracy.
E.The political context
1.Partisans in Congress
a)One of the best predictors of presidential success is the number of fellow partisans in Congress.
b)Divided government: the situation in which one party controls the White House and the other controls at least one house of Congress.
(1)Scholars generally don’t think divided government produces gridlock: a situation in which government is incapable of acting on important issues.
(2)Strong tradition of bipartisan policymaking in Congress
2.Elections
a)By running for office, candidates align themselves with particular segments of the population.
b)Candidates try to win votes from different groups through their stands on various issues.
c)The winning candidate wants to claim a mandate: an endorsement by voters; presidents sometimes argue they have been given a mandate to carry out policy proposals.
3.Political party systems
a)Presidential leadership related to the president’s relationship to the dominant political party and its policy agenda
b)Skowronek: leadership depends on president’s place in cycle of rising and falling governing coalitions.
c)Presidents who come to power right after critical elections have the most favorable environment.
V.The president as national leader
A.From political values…
1.Presidents differ greatly in their views of the role of government
a)LBJ: focus on equality and inequality
b)Ronald Reagan: focus on freedom
2.Not all presidents move so strongly toward one ideological position or another.
B.… to policy agenda
1.Roots of particular policy proposals can be traced to more general political ideology of the president
2.Newly elected president must make hard choices about what to push for
3.President’s role in legislative leadership is a twentieth century phenomenon
C.Chief lobbyist
1.Over time, presidents have become increasingly active in all stages of legislative process
2.President’s efforts are reinforced by work of legislative liaison staff
a)Legislative liaison staff: those people who compose the communications link between the White House and Congress, advising the president or cabinet secretaries on the status of pending legislation.
b)Advise on problems that emerge and what a bill’s chances of passage are with or without certain provisions
c)Tries to build consensus by working cooperatively with legislators
3.White House also works directly with interest groups to build support
a)Interest groups quickly reach constituents who are most concerned about a bill.
b)Lobbies tend to be granted access to the president only when the White House needs them to activate public opinion.
4.When agreement cannot be reached, president may veto a bill and send it back to Congress
D.Party leader
1.President has informal duty to lead his party
2.President and members of his party in Congress can take very different positions on issues
3.President is “fundraiser in chief” for his party
a)Strong incentive to raise money for congressional candidates
b)Legislators are grateful for president’s assistance
VI.The president as world leader
A.Foreign relations
1.For forty years, the president’s priority as world leader was to contain communism.
2.American presidents have entered a new era in international relations.
3.Four fundamental objectives
a)National security: the direct protection of the United States and its citizens from external threats.
b)Fostering a peaceful international environment
(1)Working with the U.N. and NATO
(2)Mediating conflict and facilitating bargaining
(3)Participating in multinational military peacekeeping forces
c)Protection of U.S. economic interests
(1)Must balance many conflicting interests
(2)Case of normalizing trade relations with China highlights conflicts
d)Humanitarian concerns and the protection of democracy throughout the world
(1)United States may impose trade sanctions to discourage human rights violations
(2)May sent troops to support transition to democracy
B.Crisis management
1.The president may face a grave situation in which conflict is imminent or a small conflict threatens to explode into a larger war.
a)How a president handles such crises is critical to the success of his presidency.
b)Citizens may vote for candidates who project careful judgment.
2.Kennedy’s behavior during Cuban missile crisis has become a model of effective crisis management.
3.Guidelines for crisis management
a)Draw on a range of advisers and opinions
b)Do not act in unnecessary hast
c)Have a well-designed formal review process with thorough analysis and open debate
d)Rigorously examine the reasoning underlying all options to assure that assumptions are valid
4.Guidelines do not guarantee against mistakes; crises are unique events.
Interactive Media Lecture 12.1 “The Drama of the Presidency”
The American President
There are numerous movies that either feature or rely on the character of the American president. This lecture can easily be adapted to many of these—indeed, it may even be helpful to highlight this feature in the media by showing clips from several films and/or television shows. The primary task of this lecture is asking students to consider what is gained and what is lost when we focus on the presidency as a “personal” institution.
The American President (1995) is the story of widower/father/President Andrew Shepherd (Michael Douglas), an unabashedly liberal Democrat, who is just gearing up for re-election when he meets an attractive and sharp environmental lobbyist named Sydney Wade (Annette Bening). The two fall in love and the president must soon deal with the political repercussions (Sydney is trying to get legislation through Congress), as well as the cynical machinations of Republican opponent Senator Bob Rumson (Richard Dreyfuss), who attempts to paint Sydney as a radical and use “family values” rhetoric to smear Shepherd. With the attacks affecting his standings in the all-important polls, and his love’s legislation causing him headaches in the Capitol, Shepherd must decide whether he can risk continuing his relationship.
The scenes referenced here highlight the tensions that adhere to being both the president and a man who has lost his wife and has begun dating again.
DVD: begin at Chapter 14, “Got a Girlfriend”, run to 59:30 (when Sydney shows up at the White House to break up with the president)
Tape: begin at 48:30, run to 59:30 (when Sydney shows up at the White House to break up with the president)
(NOTE: There are several other scenes in this movie that could be used to similar effect; please screen the movie in its entirety to determine if it would be effective for you to use additional footage.)
I.“What you did tonight was very presidential”: presidential power in the movies
A.Review of the formal and inherent powers of the presidency
B.What presidential powers and responsibilities were highlighted in this clip?
II.Presidential leadership
A.What qualities of character do Americans look for in a president?