CHALLENGES OF URBAN WATER IN MAJOR

SAUDI CITIES: MECCA REGION AS A CASE STUDY

HISHAM MORTADA*

*Hisham Mortada, Department of Architecture, College of Environmental Design, King Abdul Aziz University, P. O. Box 12161, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, tel.: ++966-55-610-257, fax: ++966-2-693-4099, e-mail:

CHALLENGES OF URBAN WATER IN MAJOR

SAUDI CITIES: MECCA REGION AS A CASE STUDY

Abstract

During the last three decades, Saudi Arabia has witnessed rapid urban growth that is associated with urban issues. The problems that have resulted have been of cities of mega-urban scale; about one third of each is serviced by public utilities. As a consequence, one of the greatest concerns that touches the daily life of inhabitants is the shortage of water.

This paper investigates the nature and reasons for the shortage of water in major Saudi cities of the Mecca Region. Some insights into the magnitude of the problem may provide a solution. Measures that have been taken by local authorities to deal with water shortages are also explored. Finally, water recycling is seen as a solution to the water crisis without considering the socio-cultural and psychological issues that may arise as a result.

Keywords: urban water, water shortage, Saudi Arabia, Mecca, Jeddah, recycling, residential water, arid region.

1. INTRODUCTION

Many urban areas of the world have been experiencing a water shortage, which threatens the daily life of their inhabitants. This situation is expected to explode in this century unless serious measures are taken to reduce the scale of the problem (Table 1). The Arab World is the worst affected region facing a water shortage crisis (Table 2). A study conducted by the World Bank for the sixth conference of the Council of Arab Ministers of Development held in December 1994 in Cairo, Egypt, stated that the amount of water available in Arab countries is 1% of that available in the world. These countries consumed the entire amount of water supplied by their limited renewable sources with nine consuming more than 100% of the water provided by renewable sources. The study pointed out that there were 60 million persons in the Arab World who did not have access to clean drinking water. It warned that this crisis of water shortage, being met with an exhaustive consumption of water, was jeopardizing the future development of the region (Fe, 1994). There is no doubt that the global environmental changes, such as desertification, have worsened the water shortage crisis in Arab countries. Recent research by the Center for Co-ordination and Pursuance in the United Arab Emirates revealed that desertification has recently become a phenomenon in the region and reduced the amount of fresh water available from renewable resources in the Gulf region to 0.5% of the world total resources (Okaz, 2002).

Most developing countries, including those of the Arab World, have not acknowledged the extent of the water problem. This is indicated by the absence of long-term strategy for water management. The problem is even more alarming in some countries where water production is subsidized by the government. For instance, where water tariffs are extremely low, people tend to ignore governmental campaigns for water conservation and rationing (International Drinking Water Decade, 1993).

2. WATER AVAILABILITY VERSUS CONSUMPTION IN SAUDI ARABIA

Saudi Arabia consumes more than 40% of its available natural water sources (The International Bank, 1995). The percentage is 100% in some parts of the country where the available water is only 50% of the actual demand (Water and Sanitation Agency, 1995) (Table 3). A recent study has warned that this high consumption will lead to a complete drying up of the natural water resources of the country, possibly within the next 8 to 20 years. However, the study pointed out that the exact amount of groundwater in Saudi Arabia is contradictory (Al-Ghamdi, 1995). For example, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water reports the amount is 258 billion m3 (cubic meter). In a second study by researchers at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, the estimation is 36,000 billion m3 (Al-Ghamdi, 1995). A third study states that the amount is 2,175 billion m3 (Balharith, 1995) (Fig. 1).

The annual withdrawal of internal renewable freshwater in Saudi Arabia was 1,002 m3/capita in 1992: 9% for domestic use, 1% for industry and 90% for agriculture (Bakir, 2001). Despite the limitation of groundwater in the country, excessive consumption of water is continuing, especially in agriculture, which is used to maintain Saudi Arabia’s ranking as the third largest country in the Middle East in grain production (Akhdar, 1995). In fact, the amount of groundwater consumed in agriculture during the last few years was 233 billion m3 (World Bank, 1996), or 69% of the total amount of the actual water demand for all purposes. In other words, two thirds of the reserved non-renewable groundwater that had accumulated in the last 15,000-35,000 years has been consumed in just 15 years. This amount is equivalent to that drained from the Nile River for 4 years (Al-konait, 1995; Zebari, 1996). Despite the intensive use of the reserved non-renewable groundwater for agriculture, hundreds of farmers in the Central Region of Saudi Arabia complained in early 2002 that four million palm trees would die if water usage was not increased (Asharq Al-Awsat, 2002).

The high rate of water consumption also applies to domestic uses (Fig. 2). A study by the Society of Science and Water Technology of the Gulf States found that the domestic consumption of water in the Gulf region, where there are no rivers or lakes, is the highest in the world. In major cities of the Gulf Region, water consumption by an individual reaches 1000 litter/day. The study shows the high level of consumption as compared with that in Turkey, where natural water is available in large quantities but the individual's daily consumption is only 225 litters (Balharith, 1995).

This level of consumption or misuse of water is a result of the low tariff on water. A survey conducted by Al-Yaoum, a local newspaper in Dammam, east of Saudi Arabia, found that residents were more concerned about telephone and electricity than with water usage. In fact, less than 2% of the respondents expressed concern about rationing water (Balharith, 1995).

Because of the limitation of natural water resources and the high demand for water, authorities in Saudi Arabia have developed other means of obtaining water. Large desalination plants have been built on the shores of the country, making Saudi Arabia the largest developer of water desalination in the world (World Health Organization, 1981) (Fig. 3). The plants produce 30% of the world’s production to meet 70% of the daily freshwater consumption in Saudi Arabia (Gleick, 1993; MacMichael, 1999). Since its establishment in 1974, the government agency responsible for water desalination, the Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC), has constructed 27 desalinated plants, 4 on the Arabian Gulf and 23 on the Red Sea, to achieve a daily water output of about 2 million m3/day (cubic meter per day). By 1999, the capacity of these plants reached 600 million m3/day (Al-Motairi, 2001; MacMichael, 1999). However, the tremendous increase in the Saudi population has aggravated the problem of water shortage. The average population growth for the last few years has reached 4.9% per year. The population was 22 million in 1999 and is expected to reach 29.02 million by 2010 (Al-Fakey, 2002) with The Saudi Central Department of Statistics estimating that by 2020 the population will reach 36.4 million. This will bring the demand for water to over 8.4 million m3/day by 2010 and 10.7 million m3/day by 2020 (Allison, 2001).

The desalination approach to supplying water is very expensive because of the sophisticated technology involved. It is also insufficient, because water consumption per capita in the 1980's exceeded what had been planned for the year 2000 (Okaz, 1995). The accumulated shortage of water met by desalination plants is expected to increase from 12.8% in 1999 to 81.6% in 2002. An increase of this magnitude is associated with a very high cost for desalination and for related operations, such as maintenance, transfer and distribution. Consequently, the Fifth Five Year Development Plan (1990-1995) of Saudi Arabia introduced a strategy targeting an 8% reduction in water consumption in agriculture by utilizing sophisticated irrigation technologies. This target, however, has not been met because of the government's goal of food security that has massively expanded the agricultural area (Al-Fakey, 2002). Likewise, the last Five Year Development Plan (1995-2000) has called for water preservation and rationing. The plan requested water authorities to set up programs and campaigns for that purpose. Even with the programs implemented by water authorities, the water shortage has become a daily issue over the past few years (Balharith, 1995). This is obvious in the Mecca Region, which has been selected as a case study because of its increasing rate of population and consequent impact on water resources.

3. MECCA REGION AND THE WATER ISSUE

The Mecca Region is located on the west side of Saudi Arabia by the Red Sea. With 4,500,000 inhabitants in 1996, representing one fourth of the country’s total population, it is the most populated of the 14 regions of Saudi Arabia (Mecca Emirate, 1997). Two thirds of its people are concentrated in the three cities of Mecca, Jeddah and Taif (Deputy Ministry for Town Planning, 1993). The region has been suffering from a water shortage for the last 17 years when wells and springs around the cities, which were the major source of water for the entire region for many years, began to dry up because of the immense rate of population growth as a result of the government’s regional development process. For instance, in the past, there were 45 water wells and 4 springs in Wadi Kholais (a village north east of Jeddah). Now, only 14 wells and 1 spring provide water (Ministry of Agriculture and Water, 1997).

To overcome the shortage of fresh water in the Mecca Region, as mentioned, water authorities turned to desalinated water as a major source of water. Despite the large budgets allocated by the government for seawater desalination during the last decade, the amount produced by desalination is insufficient to meet the ever-increasing water demand caused by the population increase and the associated urban growth of major cities.

It is estimated that the amount of water produced by the regional desalination plants is 580,000 m3/day while the wells and springs produce 70,000 m3/day in the entire region (Water and Sanitation Agency, 1995). The resultant problem of these shortages is discussed below.

3.1. The City of Mecca

The main water source of Mecca is the desalination plant located in Al-Shoaibah village, 51 km from Mecca on the Red Sea (Table 4). Out of 181,860 m3/day, which is the total amount of desalinated water produced, the plant provides Mecca with 113,000 m3/day during seven months. This amount is increased during the other five months to 146,000 m3/day to meet the high demand of water during the holy seasons (Hajj and Ramadan). During these five months more than seven million people visit the city. Yet, such a seasonal increase in the amount of water is insufficient to meet the demand caused by the population growth (Mecca Chamber of Commerce, 1995).

According to a study conducted by the Water and Sanitation Agency of Mecca Region, the average water consumption of the city of Mecca is 350,000 m3/day. The consumption increases to 500,000 m3/day during Hajj and Ramadan period. Comparing these figures with those stated previously (113,000 m3/day and 146,000 m3/day), it is understandable why there is an acute water shortage in the city. In fact, the difference is covered by water brought in by tankers from the villages outside Mecca (Ministry of Agriculture and Water, 1997).

The extensive rapid urban growth of Mecca is exhibited in the many neighborhoods and land subdivisions, which have developed in the suburbs of the city, and in large scale projects, such as new campuses and housing facilities for pilgrims. These projects bring with them a warning that some of the newly built neighborhoods and even entire districts may not have water at all.

To address the urgent demand for water during the five months of the holy seasons, the water authority has begun transferring water to Mecca from Jeddah’s desalination plant during these seasons. This approach of water transfer has been occurring since 1989. The capacity of the plant that was built to meet the water need of Jeddah is 100 million gallon/day. The water amount transferred to Mecca during the season is 40 million gallons, causing some districts of Jeddah to be without water for a considerable time during the holy season (Water and Sanitation Agency, 1995).

3.2 Jeddah

Jeddah, the major seaport of Saudi Arabia on the Red Sea, has also experienced a rapid growth in its population, especially of non-Saudis, during 1970's and mid-1980's. The tremendous increase in the national income due to the sharp rise in oil prices in 1973 provided job opportunities particularly in construction, which encouraged large-scale immigration from different parts of the world. Consequently, the city’s population grew from 404,600 inhabitants in 1971 to 915,800 in 1978, an increase of over 511,000 inhabitants in just seven years with an average increase of 73,000 annually or over 6,000 inhabitants monthly (Fig. 4). Such an increase was not envisaged by the master plan, which estimated that the total population of Jeddah would grow to 800,000 inhabitants by 1991 (Mortada, 1992). The population has continued to grow at an extremely high rate and was expected to reach 2,356,000 inhabitants in 1999 (Water and Sanitation Agency, 1995; Mecca Emirate, 1997). The non-Saudi population of Jeddah was 52.8% (483,550) in 1978 in comparison to 42.1% in 1971. Along with the immigrants were many Saudi families from other cities such as Mecca, Taif, Medina, and surrounding rural areas, who came to Jeddah seeking better job opportunities and higher living standards (Mortada, 1992).

The population increase is reflected in the urban growth of the city. Jeddah has grown from 1,215 km2 in 1979 to 30,809 km2 in 1989, a thirty-fold increase in one decade (Mortada, 1992; Deputy Ministry, 1988). The increase in the city population has led to a sharp increase in the need for water and other utilities. In fact, these unexpected growth problems have made it difficult to carry out the city master plan set up in 1971. Hence, another master plan was adopted in 1978, focusing on population increase and its engendered public services. To date, the plan has not been applied because there has been no way to keep up with the unexpected urban population growth and the resulting shortage of services (Mortada, 1992).

Until 1980, the amount of water supplied to Jeddah from the desalination plant was 156,000 m3/day. It was increased to 400,000 m3/day in 1994. This increase was in addition to the 20,000 m3 brought in by tankers from wells and springs of near-by villages, such as Wadi Fatima and Wadi Kholais. According to recent statistics by the Ministry of Agriculture and Water, the amount of water provided to Jeddah in 1997 from both sources, the desalination plant and springs (underground water) outside the city, was 847,000 m3/day (Ministry of Agriculture and Water, 1997).

Because of the high consumption of water in Jeddah, water availability is 56% of the actual water demand. As mentioned, the situation gets aggravated during the holy seasons especially during the month of Hajj (Pilgrimage) when 40% of the total amount of the desalinated water assigned to Jeddah is transferred to Mecca city to meet the high demand there (Services, Utilities and Development Committee, 1995).

3.3. Official measures to tackle the problem

With the severe water shortage in the major cities of Mecca Region because of urban and environmental factors, the local water authorities have attempted to ease the hardship of the problem, but the solutions implemented are impractical, especially for the long run.

For example, the water authority in Mecca city distributes water following a shift program. The city is divided into zones, each of which receives a particular quantity of water on specific days during the week. This means that the other zones or districts do not receive water for four days or more. In addition, the mountainous topography of Mecca reduces the amount of water that reaches districts in high locations. The lack of water is felt intensely during Hajj when it is completely diverted to the holy sites (i.e. Arafat and Mena), resulting in some districts of Mecca not receiving water for 12 days continuously. Inhabitants suffer from this shortage of water during summer when the ambient temperature exceeds 45ºC or 113ºF.

Likewise, the shift or rationed program is applied to Jeddah, even though the public network of water covers less than a third of the city.

The situation of Taif is the same. The water quantity that reaches Taif from the desalination plant at Al-Shoaibah is much less than the actual demand and it is distributed within the city according to a shift schedule. To overcome these problems, four phases of expansion of this plant have been planned by the Saline Water Conversion Corporation (SWCC) for Taif, Mecca, and Jeddah (Allison, 2001). The first unit of the expansion went on stream in August 2000, pumping 19.5 million gallons of water per day. The second was expected to pump a similar amount toward the end of 2001 (Saudi Embassy, 2000).