Ch. 8 Conditioning and Learning

Page 242

Principles of learning can be used to

1. Understand behavior

2. Manage behavior

Classical + Operant Conditioning

Conditioning = Fundamental type of learning

Classical Conditioning-

A Neutral Stimulus is repeatedly paired with a stimulus that reliably provokes a response

Gradually the Neutral Stimulus will begin to elicit a Response

Response by Association

Operant Conditioning =

Responses followed by reinforcement occur more frequently

To understand why people behave… you must understand how responses are being reinforced.

Cognitive Learning-

Is not just linking stimulus + responses

Really higher level

We learn by observing + imitating actions of others

Behavioral principles can help manage actions of others

Biological behavior patterns can facilitate the learning of some responses while also making other responses difficult to learn.

Questions

Pg 293

What is learning?

Most behavior is learned.

Definition of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Reinforcement is important to learning

Definition of Reinforcement

Reinforcement is any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again.

Definition of Response

Response is any identifiable behavior

Can be observable actions

Can be internal = heartbeat increase

Example- pg 293

Teaching a dog a trick

Reinforce- response by giving dog food

Teach child to be neat (response) give praise (reinforcement)

Antecedents and Consequences

Note what happens before + after a response

Antecedent- events that precede a response

Consequences = Effects that follow a response

Pg 294

Classical Conditioning

Based on what happens before a response

Classical Conditioning-

Antecedents events become associated with one another.

A stimulus that does not produce a response is linked with one that does.

Learning occurs when New Stimulus elicits response

Reflex responses are important

Stimulus is something that reliably triggers a response

Example- puff of air to the eye causes blink (reflex)

STIMULUS RESPONSE

Sound of horn before + puff of air (repeated many times)

NEUTRAL STIMULUS PAIRED WITH Natural STIMULUS

(Un-Conditioned Stimulus) (Air is the Natural Stimulus)

Soon horn alone will make you blink.

P 294

Classical conditioning (Pavlov)

Pavlov – Russian Physiologist

· Studying digestion

· To observe salivation dog + food

· Pavlov saw dogs begin to salivate when he entered the room

· Pavlov found learning had occurred

o Called it conditioning

· Known as classical conditioning or Pavlovian Conditioning, or Respondent Conditioning

Terms defined:

· Neutral Stimulus (NS)- a stimulus that is not associated with a response – the bell by itself

· Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- the bell becomes a stimulus that causes a response

· Un-Conditioned Stimulus (US)- aka Natural Stimulus- a stimulus that causes a specific response = the meat causes salivation naturally

· Un-Conditioned Response (UR)- un-learned, reflexive, innate response (salivating)

· Conditioned Response (CR)- a learned response associated with a Conditioned stimulus

Pavlov’s Experiment:

1. First rang bell = Neutral Stimulus (did not evoke a response)

2. Placed meat on dog’s tongue

3. Dog salivated – and process was repeated

Bell à meat à salivation

Eventually dogs salivate at sound of the bell

Neutral Stimulus (NS) = the bell-àlater bell becomes the CS= stimulus that = learning

Evokes a response

Un-Conditioned Stimulus (US) = Meat, stimulus innately capable of eliciting a response.

Un-Conditioned Response (UR) = Salivation, Non-learned, Reflex, innate response to stimulus-

Conditioned Response (CR) = When bell ringsàdog associates automatically with food, and salivates. The (NS) becomes a Conditioned Stimulus

Principles of Classical Conditioning

How Conditioning Occurs:

Acquisition

Higher Order Conditioning

Expectancies

Extinction

Spontaneous Recovery

Generalization

Discrimination

Stimulus Discrimination

Conditioned Emotional Response

Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning

Aversive Conditioning

Acquisition: or training a conditioned response;

must be reinforced (strengthened)

Classical Conditioning is reinforced when the conditioned stimulus (Bell) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (meat)

The US must follow the CS immediately for conditioning to be successful.

Higher Order Conditioning

Once a response is learned it can be used like unconditioned stimulus

Then another pairing can occur with a new US and create a new conditioned stimulus

Conditioning is also learning by association… Advertisers use associations

Expectancies:

We create mental expectations for how events are inter-connected.

Based on information

We look for associations among events

The CS à Predicts the US

The brain learns to expect that the US will follow the CS

The brain prepares the body to respond to the US

Extinction

Ending a US à before CS will cause conditioning to extinguish

Will weaken expectancy by removing reinforcement = process of Extinction

Spontaneous Recovery

Returning to conditioned response after extinction is Spontaneous Recovery

Generalization

Other stimuli similar to CS

May trigger a response

Matches fear stimuli

Stimuli that is less similar to original stimuli, responses decrease

Discrimination

Ability to respond differently to stimuli

Specific generalized stimuli

Stimulus Discrimination – the ability respond differently to various stimuli

Example voice tones

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)

Emotional responses may be linked to new stimuli

Examples- Face reddened when you were punished as a child

You may blush now when you are embarrassed or ashamed

Pain + Dentist office- thoughts cause reaction

Involuntary Autonomic Nervous System Response (fight or flight)

Are linked with new stimuli and situations- through classical conditioning

CER’s can be expanded through Generalization and Higher Order Conditioning

Learned Fears and Phobias

Are based on emotional conditioning

A learned emotional reaction to previously neutral stimulus

Phobia

Is a fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists

Animals, water, heights, thunder, fire bugs

Phobias may begin as Conditioned Emotional Responses

CERs can be treated by Desensitization Therapy

Desensitization is used to extinguish fears, anxiety + phobias

How? Therapy exposes patients to feared stimuli

They remain calm and relaxed

Fearful stimuli can be paired to pleasant feelings

Vicarious + Second Hand Conditioning

Occurs when we learn to respond emotionally to a stimulus by observing another person’s emotional reactions

We can be conditioned vicariously

We can have learned attitudes

Aversive Conditioning:

The client is exposed to an unpleasant stimulus while engaging in the targeted behavior, the goal being to create an aversion to it.

In adults, aversive conditioning is often used to combat addictions such as smoking or alcoholism. One common method is the administration of a nausea-producing drug while the client is smoking or drinking so that unpleasant associations are paired with the addictive behavior. In addition to smoking and alcoholism, aversive therapy has also been used to treat nail biting, sex addiction, and other strong habits or addictions.

Operant Conditioning

Edward Thorndike – Law of Effect

BF Skinner-

John B. Watson

Little Albert

All living creatures learn by Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning can be used to alter behavior

· Learning is based on consequences of responding.

· A response is followed by reinforcer

· We associate responses with their consequences

· Basic premise- ACTS that are reinforced are repeated.

Example- wear a hat -à get compliments -à wear hat more often

Antecedent Reinforcement/response Consequence

Pg 299-300

Law of effect-

Learning is strengthened each time a response is followed by a satisfying state of affairs.

The probability of a response, is altered by the effect it has

Operant Conditioning- refers mainly to learning voluntary responses.

T.V. remote (learned Operant Response) Pushing the button is reinforced by gaining the result.

Positive Reinforcement- Idea that reward affects learning

Operant Reinforcer

Any event that follows a response and increases its probability of occurring again

Acquiring an Operant Response

Skinner Box- (Conditioning Chamber) to study operant conditioning- in animals

Animals can take action to satisfy needs

Behavior causes à consequences à reinforces behavior

Operant Learning- is based on information and expectancy

Expect a certain responseà will have a certain effect àcertain time.

Contingent Reinforcement

Reinforcement works best when given after à desired response has occurred

Pg 302

Timing a Reinforcement-

Operant Reinforcement is most effective when it rapidly follows a correct response.

Delay weakens response

Superstitious Behavior

Unnecessary Responses- associated with successful reinforces that appear to produce reinforcement

Shaping:

The gradual molding of responses to a desired pattern

Animals taught to perform

Training

Beginningà incremental reinforcement till response occurs

Step by step <successive> approximations are reinforced

Operant Extinction

Learned responses that are not reinforced gradually fade away

Takes time

Spontaneous recovery still works

Reinforcement + Extinction Combined

Negative Attention Seekingà using misbehavior to gain attention

Children ignored for quiet play

Children get attention with more action- yelling … wild play to get attention

Attention is powerful reinforcer

Parents should praise (reinforce) quiet behavior …

Common Aspects of positive and negative reinforcement

Positive Reinforcementà occurs- when pleasant or desirable event follows a response

Negative Reinforcement

Making a response removes an unpleasant event.

Increase responding by ending discomfort

Rat is given constant electric shocksà presses a bar to remove the shock

1. Response increases

2. Effect of response—is different

Positive for food

Negative to end pain

Punishment is not negative reinforcement

Punishment refers to following a response with an aversive <unpleasant> consequence

Punishment- decreases the likelihood that the response will occur again.

Occurs when a reinforcer or positive state of affairs is removed

Example- privileges

Operant Reinforcers

Primary Reinforcers

Secondary Reinforcers

Feedback

Primary Reinforcers

Natural

Non-learned

Rooted in biology

Produce comfort

End Discomfort

Fill an immediate physical need (food, water, sex)

Intra Cranial Stimulation

Direct activation of pleasure centers

Example of Rat experiments

Learned Secondary Reinforcers

$, praise, attention, approval

Success

Affection

Grades

Can be associated with primary reinforcers

Example: Food + Praise

Token Reinforcer: “Token Economy”

Tangible Secondary reinforcer can be exchanged for primary reinforcers

Don’t lose reinforcing value easily

Used for immediate rewards for learning.

Social Reinforcers

Learned desires for attention and approval

Attention + approval can change the behavior

Knowledge of Results

Provides rapid learning

Improves learning + performance

Feedback

Knowing the degree of achievement + information

Information about the effect a response had

Needs to be frequent, immediate, and detailed

Programmed Instruction (structure)

Presents information to be learned:

Small amounts

Immediate practice

Continuous feedback to learners

Operant conditioning

Continuous Reinforcement = reinforcement follows every correct response

Partial Reinforcement = schedules of reinforcement

Not every response is reinforced

Partial Reinforcement Effect- characteristics- highly resistant to extinction

Makes habit stronger

Because of expectations develop

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

Fixed Ratio

Variable reinforcement

Fixed Interval

Variable Interval

Punishment

Lowers probability that a response will occur again

Punishes = consequence- that reduces frequency of target behavior

*only temporarily suppresses a response

Variables-Affecting Punishment

1. Timing

2. Consistency

3. Intensity

Side Effects of Punishment

People use punishments are associated with Classical conditioning

Fear

Resented

Disliked

Escape/Avoidance

Avoiding learning

People escape or avoid

Making a response to avoid/postpone discomfort

Aggression

Frustration causes aggression

Punishment increases aggression

People in pain have a tendency to lash out at others

*Punishment creates an environment for learning aggression