A Ghanaian Response to the study on Widening Participation in Higher Education in Ghana and Tanzania: Developing an Equity Scorecard
By Paul Effah (Former Executive Secretary NCTE, Ghana)
Introduction
The report on Widening Participation in Higher Education (HE) in Ghana and Tanzania: Developing an Equity Scorecard, is an evidence –based three and a half year ERSC-DFID project aimed at contributing to making HE more socially inclusive in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
It was a one public and one private university case study in which 200 students, 119 from public and 81 from private, with different backgrounds registered in different programmes, were interviewed. An important dimension of this study was its pro-poor stance. Under-represented groups including women, mature, low socio-economic status and disabled students were interviewed. Again, 172 senior academics and staff working in the Universities and 28 policy-makers were also interviewed. Views were sought on the Universities’ contributions towards the achievement of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Finally, 100 Equity Scorecards were compiled largely from raw data on admission, access, retention, completion, and achievement for four programmes in relation to three aspects of inequality - gender, Socio - Economic Status (SES), and age.
Responses to the Research Findings
The research findings have been summarized under five subheadings, namely,
- Policy: widening participation, the MDG’s and monitoring and evaluation.
- Growing Up
- Higher Education
- Structures of inequality
- Equity Scorecards
We find it convenient to discuss our responses under these subheadings.
Policy: Widening Participation, the MDG’s, Monitoring, and Evaluation.
In terms of the research findings, those relating to policy appear the most significant. In any educational enterprise, it is the vision of leadership which, when effectively shared, accepted, translated and implemented through guidelines and directives, leads to desired changes in the system. Any society or organization that has no vision is doomed to fail. The existence of policy may, therefore, well be regarded as the true major first step towards addressing the issues identified.
The research findings confirm widening participation as a policy goal in Ghana and the existence of a keen desire to reach more women, low socio-economic, mature and disabled students. A number of concerns were, however, raised including the need for flexibility in relation to cut- off points, emphasis, in some cases, on participation of women to the near neglect of the other indicators, and uneven and unsystematic monitoring and evaluation in relation to a number of social indicators. Although support in the form of counseling services and national student loans were acknowledged, problems with assessment, fees, poor or lack of residential accommodation still persist.
Private higher education has become a significant feature of the higher education system in Ghana, and with it has come problems such as issues about quality, standards, staffing and relationship with public universities. In terms of the MDG’s, the findings were that although policy makers had a clearer understanding, the goals were not widely related to higher education.
The study makes a number of recommendations in respect of management information, monitoring and evaluation, equity, quality assurance, capacity building and resourcing.
What is the acceptable level of participation in University Education?
In terms of broad development agenda, two major documents, Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS) 1 and 2 emphasize wealth creation and the elimination of poverty. The contribution of education and training towards the achievement of this broad goal of government is crucial. Education and training develop the human capital required to increase a country’s output of goods and services and contribute to economic development.
There are different types and levels of tertiary education and the University is one of them. Each of these broad categories has specific contributions to make to the realization of the human capital goal of government’s development agenda. A discussion of widening participation at the university should look at the rate at which one can say that the level of participation is acceptable. It is important in this regard to look back at the model of university education that Ghana inherited from the British tradition. In Britain, university education was not supposed to be for everybody; it was for those of the elite class who could afford it. One major function of higher education was to train leaders, therefore, university education was restricted to a carefully selected elite who were to become future leaders (Effah, Mensa-Bonsu, 2001). It was not until 1961 following what has been described as the Robbins Report that expansion of higher education was legitimized and extended to all those who qualified for it. This trend has also characterized university education in Ghana and explains, to a large extent, the very limited participation at this level.
Starting from almost very insignificant numbers, participation in HE has seen a significant growth. From a total of about 10,000 in the early 1980’s student enrollment in public universities reached about 110,000 in the 2008/2009 academic year. Ghana’s Gross Enrolment Ratio of about 3% in the late 1980’s has reached 10%, (NCTE,2009). Although this is still lower than the 30-50% achieved by many developed countries, it is quite phenomenal compared to what obtains in other African countries.
The need to control numbers
Although widening participation is desirable and generally acceptable to all stake holders, it is impossible to provide university education to every youth. Government’s approach has been to widen participation through a policy of differentiation at the tertiary level. All the two major reforms embarked upon during the last three decades have emphasized the need to encourage viable alternatives to university education, In this regard, the White Paper on the university Rationalization Committee Report in 1991 suggested the establishment of Regional Colleges of Applied Arts and Sciences (RCAAST) which were to train students in the arts and sciences up to the diploma level. It also proposed the establishment of two more universities, the University of Education, Winneba and the University for Development studies with its headquarters in Tamale. These universities have since been established. Polytechnics have been upgraded in line with the proposals in the White Paper. The upgrading exercise was further to reposition Technical Vocation Education and Training (TVET). In the White Paper to the report on the Review of Education Reforms (Anamuah-Mensah Report) in 2004 emphasis was again placed on TVET and Polytechnic education which was to be strengthened and resourced to train graduates up to the degree level. A number of polytechnics have since obtained accreditation to run B. Tech degree programmes. Teacher training colleges have also been upgraded to tertiary status as” Colleges of Education” to train teachers up to the diploma level. Nursing training Colleges are in the process of being upgraded.
These upgrading exercises are aimed at broadening participation at the tertiary level, among other things, to reduce pressure on university education. While polytechnics are to offer hands-on, practical training, the Colleges of Education and the Nursing Training Colleges are to train professional teachers and nurses respectively to augment professionals in their respective fields. This is an important policy initiative to try and create viable alternatives in higher education thereby, widening participation.
What the policy of ‘differentiation’ seeks to do is to reduce pressure of admissions on universities and to broaden participation at the other levels such as Colleges of Education and Polytechnics. This is necessary because as demand for university education continues to outstrip expansion in physical and academic infrastructure, quality is bound to be compromised.
Private Higher Education
Private participation in HE is one of the emerging trends in Africa. Someone has asked the question whether private participation in HE constitutes a threat or promise to public tertiary institutions. The answer is that it is neither. Indeed, participation of the private sector in HE has become a reality. Private HE has come to stay to complement Government effort. It cannot be wished away.
In Ghana, private provision of HE has expanded from about one institution in 1979 to some 55 accredited institutions in 2009. This phenomenal expansion has come with it a lot of challenges. The first obvious one is how to assure quality. Until the establishment of the National Accreditation Board (NAB) in 1993, there was no organized regulatory framework for private provision of HE. With the establishment of NAB some order has been put into the process of establishing private tertiary education institutions. No one can get up to establish a private tertiary institution without seeking accreditation. It would be closed down if the fact of its existence without accreditation comes to the notice of NAB, and many have suffered this fate. Any proprietor who plans to establish a private tertiary institution would have to go through a process of accreditation in two phases, institutional, and programme accreditation. But, given the number of individuals and institutions involved, and the fact that public institutions and programmes have also to be accredited, the situation is capable of overwhelming NAB, unless it quickly builds its capacity. Secondly, there is the tendency for some individuals both in public and private institutions to be involved in management and teaching in several other private tertiary institutions. This situation is difficult to regulate. As several individuals teach in several institutions, not much can be expected of them, thereby adversely affecting the quality of delivery and provision in those institutions. Again, owing largely to the huge initial capital outlay, and the lack of science teachers and laboratories, many of the private tertiary institutions shy away from science based programmes and concentrate mainly on the arts, business, ICT and religious based programmes.
This notwithstanding, private participation in HE has introduced some competition in the provision of HE, particularly in the arts and business subjects, which has the potential of enhancing quality. What is required now is a continuous mechanism of monitoring the activities of private provision of HE to ensure that bad nuts are weeded out. Private participation has also introduced flexibility in the provision of HE, convenient to workers and other adult learners. Private tertiary institutions have come up with other creative ways of addressing the needs of adult and mature students, including flexible admission procedures and continuous and distance learning.
Contribution of HE to the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
In September, 2000 UN member states adopted the UN millennium declaration to reduce extreme poverty in all its forms by half by 2015. Agreement was reached on eight goals supported by 21 quantifiable targets and sixty (60) indicators through which progress could be measured.
The findings of the study with regard to the MDGs were that they were not widely related to HE. Although policy makers were aware of the MDGs this was not the case with regard to academic staff. This situation was corroborated by Prof GoolamMohamedbhai, in a paper “Contribution of Higher Education to the UN Millennium Development Goals” in which he argued that the vast majority of academics who were his audience were not aware of the MDGs and therefore, could not even start thinking about how their institutions can contribute to them (AAU Press Release, Sept,2010). This statement does not imply that universities do not or have not made any contribution to the achievement of MDGs. Broadly, the government’s development agenda as captured in the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategies (GPRS I&II) is the creation of wealth and elimination of poverty. The universities role is to generate knowledge as a basis for development and to develop human capital required to serve as a catalyst for national development. The education and training at the university and tertiary education level opens up opportunities, broadens one’s scope and equips graduates with skills that prepare them for the world of work. Therefore, universities are agents of development helping to take people out of poverty, directly or indirectly, thereby contributing to the achievement of MDGs.What is required is to create awareness inuniversities, whipping up their interest and enthusiasmin ensuring that the MDGs are met.
Growing up
The study identifies under this sub-heading, a number of issues including lack of teachers, especially STEM, factors emanating from rural environments and types of families as well as children from low socio- economic groups and makes recommendations for addressing them.
Among the recommendations made is the development of acode of professional ethics for teachers in primary and secondary schools, professional development for teachers and the introduction of a more robust quality assurance of primary and secondary education, inspection and audit arrangements.
We would like to discuss the lack of teachers, especially STEM, the rural environment and the need for a strong inspectorate. Teachers form a bedrock, and are central to any education reform. Their role is even more crucial in the teaching of science and mathematics. Ghana has adopted a policy of attaining a 60:40 science: arts ratio at the tertiary level. This policy is far from being achieved. In practice, the average science to arts enrolment ratio at the tertiary level is about 30:70 in favour of arts. The reasons are not far to seek. First there are not enough science students emerging from the basic and secondary schools. It costs more to study sciences and mathematics than the arts subjects in terms of money, time and effort. Next, there are not enough teachers to teach science and mathematics even in the urban schools, let alone those in the rural areas. Science schools are not enough and when they exist, particularly those in the rural areas, they do not have the required laboratories to facilitate the teaching of science and mathematics. There are thirty-eight (38) teacher training colleges which have since 2004 been upgraded to tertiary status and designated as colleges of education. Out of this number only fifteen (15) are science based. Their output is low owing to some of the issues raised above. A number of interventions have been initiated to address the issue of shortage of teachers in primary and secondary schools. One is the upgrading of teacher training colleges to tertiary status. This has come with other initiatives such as the introduction of ICT, and the review of curricula to emphasizecontent. Introduction of science and mathematics clinics, particularly for girls and the establishment of science resource centres are further pointers to Government’s commitment to step up the study of science and mathematics at the primary and secondary levels. In more recent months, the Ministries of Science and Environment and Education are collaborating efforts to introduce scholarships and bursaries to promote the study of science and mathematics.
There is a need for an effective system of scholarships and bursaries for students studying science and mathematics in secondary and tertiary institutions to promote the study of science and mathematics. Loans for students pursuing these categories of courses should exceed those of their colleagues in the arts. Students who continue to the tertiary level and decide to teach in either second cycle or tertiary institutions for a period of ten years should have their loans written off. All teachers in colleges of education offering science and mathematics should be offered scholarships and bursaries. This effort should be accompanied by appropriate efforts to expand science based schools, particularly laboratories. Government policy of having one model science secondary school in every district should be pursued to its conclusions. This way, students in all districts can hope to have a good science based school closer to them.
One of the reasons often assigned by educationists for better performance of private secondary schools in Ghana is effective supervision of teachers. To improve monitoring and supervision an Inspectorate Directorate has been established within the Ministry of Educationheaded by a Chief Inspector of Schools. It is hoped that when completely operational, the Directorate wouldhelp tostep up monitoring and supervision of schools and thereby help improve quality. District Assemblies should be encouraged to sponsor teachers, particularly those in science and mathematics and be bonded to teach in the districts for a period of time.
Higher Education
The section of the study on higher education reports on a number of issues including negative experiences of students and proposes the introduction of quality assurance procedures. The negative experiences reported cover wide-ranging issues such as poor quality, inadequate physical and academic infrastructure, lack of professionalism on the part of lecturers, large classes and lack of transparency in admission procedures.
The negative experiences reported by students are largely the results of massification. With increased student enrolment, decreasing public funding of higher education and near stagnation in the provision of physical and academic infrastructure, facilities have been overstretched to their breaking points. Until recently, poor conditions of service have made it difficult to attract and retain young faculty. This situation has resulted in large classes with its attendant difficulties including poor supervision, introduction of multiple choice questions, rote learning and less attention to issues of quality. The situation is improving. The National Accreditation Board (NAB) has been established to grant accreditation to both private and public institutions. This has helped somewhat, although the number of institutions involved is making it overwhelmingly difficult to regulate the sub-sector. Conditions of ssevice for staff in higher education institutions are improving steadily making it possible to attract and retain some young faculty.