By: Lindsay Seward, Dept. of Wildlife Ecology, University of Maine

By: Lindsay Seward, Dept. of Wildlife Ecology, University of Maine

Readings:

Pages 33-44, 210-219, 281-294 in Kricher, J.C.1998.A Field Guide to Eastern Forests, North America.Houghton Mifflin Co., NY.488 p.

Pages 12-17, 20-21, 26-27, 37, 39-41, 49,54 in Bryan, R.R.2004.Focus Species Forestry – A Guide to Integrating Timber and Biodiversity Management in Maine, 2nd ed.Maine Audubon, Falmouth, Maine.92 p.

Pages 15-32, 47-60, 71-81 in Elliot, C.A. (editor) 1999. Biodiversity in the Forests of Maine: Guidelines for Land Management. University of Maine Cooperative Extension Bulletin 7147. 167 p.

I.  Introduction: Topics that we’ll cover

A.  Characteristics of wildlife

B.  Major groups

C.  Adaptations

D.  Interior versus edge species

E.  Area sensitive species

F.  Food and cover relationships

G.  Forest succession and wildlife habitat

H.  Stand and landscape level considerations

I.  Special species or ecosystems

II.  What is Wildlife?

A.  Wildlife refers to living organisms that are not in any way artificial or domesticated and which exist in natural habitats

B.  Habitat: includes the sum total of all the environmental conditions present in the specific place occupied by an organism and is species specific

1.  Important components: Food, Water, Cover

2.  Important take-home message: NO single forest stand can provide quality habitat for all wildlife species

C.  Major Groups of Animals

1.  Vertebrates

a)  Mammals, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Fish

2.  Invertebrates

a)  Insects, Mollusks, Arthropods

3.  Carnivores

a)  Maine supports a diverse assemblage of carnivores (e.g., Fisher, Marten, Weasels, Coyotes, Bobcat, Bears, Canada Lynx)

b)  Many species rely on snowshoe hare as a primary food source

4.  Spruce/Fir Forest – Other Mammal Species:

a)  Rodents (beavers, chipmunk, squirrels, porcupine, voles)

b)  Lagomorphs (snowshoe hare)

c)  Bats

d)  Cervids (Moose, deer)

e)  Some Adaptations

(i)  Color Patterns

(a)  Many species turn white in winter

(ii)  Morphology

(a)  Large size relative to conspecifics at lower latitudes

(iii)  Physiology

(a)  Winter environment requires homeothermic animals to adjust their physiology

5.  Spruce/Fir Forest – Major Bird Species:

a)  Raptors

(i)  Includes hawks, owls, eagles, turkey vultures

(ii)  Seventeen forest-nesting species of raptor are known to breed in Maine

b)  Wood Warblers

(i)  Maine supports 26 species of nesting warblers, many of which use Spruce/Fir stands primarily for food, cover, and nesting habitat

(ii)  Successional stage influences species occurrences

6.  Spruce/Fir Forest –Reptile Species:

a)  Snakes and Turtles

b)  Maine supports 22 species of snakes and turtles

c)  Habitat requirements vary by species

7.  Spruce/Fir Forest – Amphibian Species:

a)  Frogs and Salamanders

b)  Maine supports 18 species of frogs and amphibians

c)  Breeding habitat requirements influence their distribution

d)  Require both wetlands and uplands

III.  Characteristics of Wildlife

A.  Generalist vs. Specialist wildlife species throughout Spruce/Fir Forests

1.  Generalists are not strictly associated with Spruce/Fir forests, yet occur abundantly throughout

2.  Specialists occur primarily in Spruce/Fir forests

B.  r and K-selected species

C.  Edge Species

1.  Adaptable to disturbance

2.  Often are generalists

3.  Nest in concealed sites

D.  Interior Species

1.  Very vulnerable to disturbance

2.  Often habitat specialists

3.  Nest in more open exposed areas

4.  Hermit thrush as an interior species

E.  Some species are area sensitive and require large tracts of contiguous habitat

IV.  Two Basic Principles

A.  Plant Diversity = Wildlife Diversity

B.  Structural Diversity = Wildlife Diversity

1.  Vertical Structure

a)  Range of conditions for various species

b)  Ground/shrub cover important for many wildlife

2.  Horizontal Structure

V.  Succession and wildlife communities

A.  Wildlife communities depend on successional stage

1.  Which species occur depends on forest structure and species composition

2.  Successional stage determines food, cover, and nesting habitat

3.  Early, Mid-, and Late-succession species occur throughout Spruce/Fir Forests

B.  Characteristics of Early Succession

1.  Abundant ground cover

2.  Abundant seeds & insects

3.  Open spaces

4.  r-selected species

5.  Old fields transition to pole-sized stands

6.  Shelter & escape cover is abundant

7.  Early Successional Species

8.  Example Species: Moose

a)  Occurs in Spruce/Fir Forests, swamps, aspen and willow thickets

b)  Prefer deciduous browse species, aquatic plants in summer, and commonly feed on Balsam Fir in winter

C.  Characteristics of Mid-Succession

1.  Young trees and shrubs

2.  Nesting, roosting and loafing cover

3.  Seeds, fruit, insects and browse

4.  Mid-successional forests typically have lowest biodiversity

5.  Many generalist species with no strict associations occur throughout Spruce/Fir forest

D.  Later Successional Forests

1.  Older forests, with large trees, accumulation of deadwood

2.  Natural disturbances primarily

3.  Gap formation provides heterogeneity within

4.  K-selected species

a)  Species have specific habitat requirements related to forest structure

b)  Canopy dependent species

c)  Cavity nesters

d)  Home sites

5.  Example Species - American Marten

a)  They den in hollow trees, crevices, or vacant ground burrows.

b)  Carnivores that prey on small mammals and snowshoe hare primarily

c)  Habitat: They occur where there are numerous dead trees to find food and shelter in.

d)  Prefer a thick canopy

E.  Wildlife and Forest Disturbances

1.  Disturbance (frequency and intensity) influences successional stage

2.  Variable vertical and horizontal structure

3.  Natural and anthropogenic (human-induced) causes

4.  Example: Spruce budworm Specialists

a)  Species increase in numbers due to high abundance of Spruce Budworms to feed upon

b)  Example: Regenerating forests

F.  Snags

1.  Definition: a standing dead or dying tree

2.  Why Important? Food and shelter for a number of wildlife species

a)  By Primary Cavity Users

b)  By Secondary Cavity Users – those species that do not excavate, but do use the cavities (e.g., bats, squirrels, herps, birds other than woodpeckers and allies)

c)  By snag foragers – glean inverts from outside or inside of snags (e.g., nuthatches, woodpeckers)

d)  By snag perchers – use as loafing or hunting sites (e.g., doves, flycatchers, diurnal birds of prey

3.  Key features of snags

a)  Diameter

b)  Height above ground

c)  Degree of rot

d)  Tree species

e)  Location in forest

G.  Course Woody Debris

1.  Windrows, slash piles, treetops

2.  offer cover, nesting sites, and germination sites

3.  Fallen or residual downed logs offer:

a)  fungi and phosphorus

b)  nest sites

c)  insects, cover, and nutrient cycling

d)  Salamanders, snakes, toads and insects find refuge underneath logs

e)  Shrews & mice use logs for travel

VI.  Special Ecosystems and Habitats

A.  Special Habitats: Vernal Pools

1.  Support unique wildlife

a)  Wood frogs, spotted salamanders, fairy shrimp

b)  Important foraging sites for other species (e.g., bats)

2.  Life-history & Ecology of Amphibians

B.  Special Habitats: Riparian & Stream Ecosystems

1.  High plant and food (Insects and acorns) diversity

2.  Natural travel corridors

3.  Sources of standing water

a)  herp breeding areas

4.  Abundant dead wood

5.  High wildlife diversity

C.  Special Habitats: Deer Wintering Areas

1.  Important softwood stands that provide shelter and food for deer

2.  Especially important when snow depth exceeds 12 inches

3.  Mature stands of balsam fir, spruce, cedar, hemlock, and pine

D.  Special Habitats: Nest Sites for Woodland Raptors

1.  Raptors are of special interest as top predators

2.  Most nest in forest trees

E.  Other Habitats for Wildlife

1.  Aquatic Species:

a)  Numerous water bodies occur throughout Spruce/Fir forests and support numerous species of wildlife

2.  Wetland Species

a)  Wetlands are abundant throughout Spruce/Fir forests and are valuable habitats for reptiles and amphibians

2

Terms

Wildlife

Habitat

Vertebrates

Mammals

Amphibians

Reptiles

Birds

Fish

Invertebrates

Insects

Carnivores

Fisher

Canada lynx

Rodents

Snowshoe hare

Bats

Moose

Deer

Raptors

Hawks

Owls

eagles

warblers

snakes

turtles

frogs

salamanders

generalists

specialists

r selected

K selected

Edge species

Interior species

Wildlife diversity

Vertical structure

Horizontal structure

Early succession

Mid-succession

Later successional

Gap formation

Marten

Disturbances

Snags

Primary cavity user

Secondary cavity user

Snag forager

Snag perchers

Course woody debris

Vernal pools

Riparian

Deer wintering areas

2