Behavior Modification Theory
Operant Conditioning
We are going to focus on B.F. Skinner’s theory and technique of “operant” behavior and conditioning.
I. Operant Behavior: It operates on the environment and the environment operates on the behavior in turn. Operant behavior is voluntary behavior. Such behaviors occur without any eliciting stimulus, so we say that the behaviors are emitted (rather than evoked or brought about by some stimulus event).
A. The Control of Operant Behavior: Operant behavior is controlled by the consequences which immediately follow it. Since behavior that has already occurred cannot be altered, in reality the consequences which follow a behavior only alter the future probability or strength of the behavior. Thus, by manipulating the consequences (or stimulus consequences) of operant behavior, the likelihood of the future occurrence of the behavior can be influenced.
B. Operant Conditioning: To increase or decrease the probability of behavior through systematic arrangement of consequences.
1. The operant level of the behavior is determined by making a baseline record of the behavior at the beginning of the behavior modification process.
2. To increase the strength of the behavior, each occurrence of the desired behavior is followed with a potential reinforcer until the strength of the desired behavior increases.
3. To scientifically verify that the reinforcement caused the change, reinforcement is discontinued until the behavior returns to the operant level.
C. Reinforcement: Any event or stimulus consequence that increases the strength or future probability of the behavior it follows is called a reinforcer.
D. Immediacy of Reinforcement: Reinforcement must immediately follow the desired behavior in order to have maximum effect.
E. Reinforcement Must be Contingent: Reinforcement must be contingent on the target behavior. Requiring a behavior to occur before delivering a consequence is known as establishing a contingency. Non-contingent reinforcement may result in satiation.
II. Identifying Reinforcers: Consequences that are reinforcing to some persons may not be reinforcing for others. This is why it is important to learn how to select reinforcers and to understand how certain events or consequences become reinforcers.
A. Primary Reinforcers: Consequences that satisfy certain biological needs (e.g., food and water). A primary reinforcer does not depend on previous conditioning for its reinforcing power.
B. Secondary Reinforcers: These consequences have an acquired reinforcing power. These may include attention, praise, money, and other reinforcers not directly related to biological needs.
1. It is important to remember that if secondary reinforcers are not backed by primary reinforcers (or other strong conditioned reinforcers) they will lose their reinforcing properties.
III. Deprivation and Satiation: Deprivation relates to how long it has been since reinforcement was last available. Satiation occurs when too much of a given reinforcer is delivered at one time.
IV. Reinforcement Operations: There are two basic reinforcement operations: Positive and negative. They both increase the strength of the behavior they follow. Therefore, both are reinforcing – Neither should be confused with punishment.
A. Positive Reinforcement: It’s the process of adding something good or desirable to the environment.
B. Negative Reinforcement: It’s the process of taking away something bad contingent upon the desired behavior. That is, a person is reinforced for emitting a response because by doing so he escapes from an ongoing punishing (aversive) stimulus.
V. Types of Reinforcers
A. Material Reinforcers: Tangible items such as toys, stickers, food, etc…
B. Privileges or Activity Reinforcers: Things a person likes to do such as playing a game, being a special helper, etc…
C. Token Reinforcers: Something tangible that can be exchanged for material, activity, or social reinforcers at a later time.
1. Token systems usually work best if all concerned participate in setting up the system and in defining the types and costs of the back-up reinforcers.
2. It is sometimes necessary to use tokens and tangible reinforcers to condition naturally available reinforcers. Students who have never responded to natural reinforcers such as adult approval or pride in a job well done will work hard for tokens that allow them to have things they want or to do things they want to do. After they come into contact with adult approval and have been praised, the tokens can usually be withdrawn gradually and the natural reinforcers will take over.
D. Social Reinforcement: Social reinforcement is readily available at small cost and is so powerful that it should always be considered.
1. Use it continently
2. Vary verbal praise by increasing positive vocabulary
3. Use positive non-verbal language (e.g., eye contact, smile, etc..)
4. Pair social reinforcement with other reinforcers
5. Be specific with your praise
(a) DAP Language (Descriptive Active Positive)
VI. Applying Reinforcement
A. Contingency Contracting: It is an agreement between two or more persons which lists specific behaviors that the contracting parties will emit and the consequences that will result. A contingency contract should state who will engage in what behaviors. It should specify when the behaviors will occur and should state what the consequences will be, who will provide it and when.
B. Accentuate the Positive: Whenever possible, state the language in positive terms. It should be designed to ensure success. It should also be designed to provide for frequent and immediate reinforcement in the beginning. Contingency contracting often leads to self management, in fact this should be the goal.
C. Providing Opportunities to Make Response: A basic tenant of social learning theory is that learning can occur only if a person has the opportunity to make responses and receive feedback.
D. Immediacy of Feedback: Providing information on the correctness or incorrectness of a response as quickly as possible facilitates learning.
VII. Teaching New Behaviors Through Shaping: When we wish to bring about changes in behavior, we are usually concerned with increasing or decreasing the strength of behaviors already present in a person’s repertoire. However, sometimes we are faced with a situation in which a desired behavior does not occur, or occurs at such a low operant level. In such cases it may be necessary to use shaping, modeling, prompting, fading, and chaining procedures to teach or create new behaviors.
A. Shaping: It is a procedure in which simple elements of a person’s present behavior are formed into more complex behavior. It is the procedure of differentially reinforcing successive approximations, step by step, until a desired terminal behavior is achieved (see steps below).
1. Define the desired terminal behavior and measure the operant level.
2. Find a beginning behavior which the person can perform and which resembles the desired terminal behavior.
3. Break the target behavior into graduated steps, beginning with the easiest and ending with the terminal behavior.
4. Have the person perform each step, reinforcing each one as it is successfully accomplished.
5. If a step is not performed, go back to an easier step or divide the step into smaller steps.
6. Continue the procedure until the person is performing the terminal behavior before being reinforced.
VIII. Schedules of Reinforcement: Reinforcement schedules have a profound effect on behavior.
A. Continuous Reinforcement: This is the best schedule to use to initially strengthen a behavior or to support the acquisition of a new behavior. Under a continuous reinforcement schedule, every desired response is reinforced. It is the fastest way to establish a new behavior and it is the most effective schedule to use in a shaping procedure.
B. Intermittent Reinforcement: Intermittent schedules of reinforcement are more effective and efficient in maintaining behavior once higher rates have been established. In intermittent reinforcement, only certain responses are reinforced. One advantage of intermittent reinforcement is that it is more resistant to extinction.
IV. Categories of Reinforcement: There are two basic categories of reinforcement schedules: ratio and interval.
A. Ratio: These are schedules contingent on the number of responses which have been emitted
1. Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement after 1st, 5th, 10th, 50th, or 100th response.
2. Variable Ratio: Reinforcement on average every 2nd, 5th, 10th, 50th response.
B. Interval: These are schedules contingent upon the passage of time between responses.
1. Fixed Interval: Reinforcement after every 2, 5, 10, 20 (etc..) minutes have elapsed
2. Variable Interval: Reinforcement occurs on average every 2, 5, 10, 20 (etc…) minutes have elapsed.
Hall, R.V. (1971) Behavior Modification: Basic principles. Lawrence, Kansas: H & H Enterprises.