Autism in the Classroom- Reinforcement Page 1

Autism In The Classroom- Reinforcement Page | 1

Autism In The Classroom

Reinforcement

Overview

Reinforcement describes a relationship between learner behavior and a consequence that follows the behavior. This relationship is only considered reinforcement if the consequence increases the probability that a given behavior will occur in the future, or at least be maintained. For example, a learner may be having difficulty completing independent work in math class. However, when the teacher offers fun activities to students who have completed their work, the student is much more likely to finish his work independently. In this example, the teacher has increased the likelihood that the learner with ASD will complete his independent work activities by offering reinforcing activities after he is finished with them.

The ultimate goal of reinforcement is to help learners with ASD learn new skills and maintain their use over time in a variety of settings with many different individuals. As such, teachers and other practitioners must identify the appropriate reinforcers that motivate individual learners with ASD. In this module, three reinforcement procedures will be discussed: (a) positive reinforcement, (b) negative reinforcement, and (c) token economy programs. Steps for implementing each of these procedures is provided as well as information on how reinforcement can be used across the age range from preschool through adolescence.

Module Objectives

Participants will:

• Identify the three reinforcement procedures that can be used with learners with ASD;
• Describe the steps for implementing positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and token economy programs;
• Describe how to fade the use of reinforcement programs while still helping learners generalize and maintain the use of newly acquired skills; and
• Identify the challenges associated with implementing reinforcement programs with learners with ASD.

What is Reinforcement?

Reinforcement is based upon the principles of applied behavior analysis, particularly the work of B.F. Skinner. Through his work, Skinner (1956) outlined the major theoretical constructs of reinforcement and argued that reinforcement should be individualized based upon learner preference. The main reason is that what is reinforcing to one person may not be reinforcing to another. Therefore, reinforcement is most effective when it is individualized for a particular learner and when it is immediately presented in response to a learner's use of a target behavior.

When using reinforcement, it is essential that learners with ASD understand what behavior is required to earn the reinforcer. Research on reinforcement has shown that it is a highly effective practice that can be used to increase and strengthen a variety of behaviors and skills (cf., Cicero & Pfadt, 2002; Grindle & Remington, 2005; Higbee, Carr, & Patel, 2002; Kay, Harchik, & Luiselli, 2006; Kern, Carberry, & Haidara, 1997; Koegel, O'Dell, & Dunlap, 1988; Lee & Sturmey, 2006; Pelios, MacDuff, & Axelrod, 2003; Sidener, Shabani, Carr, & Roland, 2006; Todd & Reid, 2006).

When implementing reinforcement, the following three basic principles should be followed:

◦Reinforcement immediately follows the target behavior.

◦Reinforcement fits the target behavior and is meaningful to the learner with ASD.

◦Multiple reinforcers are more effective than a single reinforcer (Alberto & Troutman, 2008).

Three reinforcement procedures can be used to help learners with ASD acquire and maintain target skills: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and token economy programs. A description of each of these procedures is included in the following section.

Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement refers to the presentation of a reinforcer after a learner uses a target behavior. Positive reinforcers can be either primary (e.g., food, liquids, comfort) or secondary (e.g., verbal praise, highly preferred activities, stickers, toys). Because primary reinforcers are often naturally reinforcing to learners with ASD, the value of secondary reinforcers must be learned by pairing primary reinforcers with other types of reinforcement (e.g., pairing "Good job" with getting a sticker).

Positive reinforcement is generally the strategy that teachers/practitioners use first when trying to teach new skills (e.g., teaching a replacement behavior for an interfering behavior) or to increase appropriate behaviors (Alberto & Troutman, 2008). When using any type of reinforcement procedure, it is important to keep in mind that reinforcers should be individualized to meet the needs of each learner with ASD. For example, one learner may respond well to a pat on the back, while another learner may need something more concrete such as being given the opportunity to play with play dough after engaging in a nonpreferred activity.

Example of Positive Reinforcement

A teacher wants to teach Matthew, a learner with ASD, to greet peers when he arrives at school in the morning. To teach this skill, the teacher gives Matthew a sticker and pats him on the back each time he greets a peer when he enters the classroom.

Token Economy Programs

Token Economy Programs

A token economy program is another type of positive reinforcement strategy that can be used effectively with learners with ASD. Token economy programs are referred to as such because they are based upon a monetary system in which tokens are used to acquire desired reinforcers, also known as backup reinforcers. For example, learners with ASD receive tokens when they use target behaviors appropriately. When they acquire a certain number of tokens, these can be exchanged for objects or activities that are reinforcing to the learner (i.e., backup reinforcers). Token economies are generally comprised of the following three components:

• The target behavior/skill is identified and defined.
• A medium of exchange is selected (i.e., a token or symbol that the learner receives after using the target skill).
• Backup reinforcers (e.g., items, activities) may be "purchased" after acquiring a certain number of tokens.

Token economy programs can be used in a variety of settings (e.g., classroom, community, home) to help learners with ASD acquire target skills. Teachers/ practitioners may find them particularly useful because tokens (a) can be administered immediately following the target behavior, (b) do not interrupt the flow of an activity or lesson, (c) maintain a learner's behavior over long periods of time, and (d) can be used with several learners at the same time (Alberto & Troutman, 2008).

Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus (i.e., something that is aversive to the learner) after a learner with ASD uses a target behavior or skill. That is, learners work to get rid of something that is unpleasant to them. Negative reinforcement often is used to alter interfering behaviors (e.g., repetitive, stereotypical, disruptive). When used effectively, negative reinforcement increases a learner's use and/or maintenance of the target behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 2008; Zirpoli, 2005). Negative reinforcement is often used to teach self-help skills and replacement behaviors to take the place of interfering behaviors (e.g., repetitive, stereotypical, disruptive); however, it also can be used to teach all skills. Negative reinforcement is often used only after other reinforcement strategies, such as positive reinforcement and differential reinforcement, have not been effective in increasing the target behavior.

Example of Negative Reinforcement

A teacher wants to increase the length of time that Molly, a learner with ASD, stays on task during individual work time. Molly does not like staying seated for long periods of time. Therefore, her teacher decides to use negative reinforcement to increase the length of time that Molly stays on task (i.e., work independently without prompting from the teacher). If Molly works independently without teacher prompts, she will be allowed to get out of her seat for 5 minutes.

Are Any Assessments Needed Prior to Using Reinforcement?

Before implementing a reinforcement program using positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, or token economy programs, teachers/practitioners should conduct a reinforcer sampling to identify objects, items, or activities that are reinforcing or have been reinforcing in the past for individual learners with ASD. A reinforcement program will not be successful unless the learner with ASD is highly motivated by the reinforcers. This process will vary according to the reinforcement procedure being used (see Step-by-Step Instructions for positive and negative reinforcement). Reinforcers can be identified by:

• Conducting reinforcer assessments;
• Creating preference lists (e.g., reinforcer checklists, reinforcer menus);
• Interviewing the learner;
• Interviewing family members; or
• Interviewing other teachers/practitioners.

Through this process, teachers/practitioners identify a variety of reinforcers that can be used to motivate learners with ASD to increase their use of target skills. Reinforcers are generally categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary reinforcers satisfy a physical need by making the individual feel good (e.g., food, liquids, sleep). Secondary reinforcers are objects or activities that individuals have grown to like, but that do not meet basic biological needs. Potential reinforcers include the following:

Social reinforcers are found in virtually any setting. Social reinforcers often must be taught to learners with ASD because they may not be inherently reinforcing.

EXAMPLES: facial expressions (e.g., smiles), proximity (e.g., sitting next to teacher), words and phrases (e.g., "Good job!" "Way to go!"), and seating arrangements (e.g., sitting alone, sitting next to favorite peer)

Material/activity reinforcers can be motivating to learners with ASD; however, teachers/practitioners should vary these kinds of reinforcers with others so that learners do not grow tired of them.

EXAMPLES: play activities, access to computer games, stickers, "cool" school supplies (e.g., Spiderman erasers)

Tangible/edible reinforcers include objects that a learner with ASD can acquire.

EXAMPLES: toys, magazines, pencils, candy, popcorn

Sensory reinforcers are often motivating to learners with ASD. However, these types of reinforcers should be used only when (a) the teacher can control access to them, (b) the reinforcer is deemed acceptable and appropriate for the setting, and (3) no other reinforcer is as motivating to the learner with ASD.

EXAMPLES: looking at a kaleidoscope, blowing bubbles, playing with a squishy ball, sitting in a rocking chair, rubbing hand lotion

Natural reinforcers are ordinary results of a behavior and occur naturally in the environment.

EXAMPLES: receiving a good grade after studying, getting milk after asking for it, and having more friends as a result of good social skills

Reinforcement Schedules

The goal of reinforcement is to increase skills while gradually fading reinforcement strategies to promote maintenance and generalization through the use of reinforcement schedules (i.e., schedules of reinforcement). Schedules of reinforcement refer to the frequency or timing of the delivery of reinforcement following a target behavior. For example, a reinforcer can be delivered either on a continuous or on an intermittent schedule.

A continuous reinforcement schedule is used when learners with ASD are reinforced every time they use the target behavior. This type of reinforcement schedule is most often used when first teaching learners new skills. As learners become more proficient at using target skills, teachers/practitioners fade reinforcement by systematically applying intermittent reinforcement schedules, which can be either ratio or interval.

With ratio reinforcement schedules, teachers/practitioners deliver reinforcement after a learner with ASD uses the target behavior a certain number of times. Interval reinforcement schedules, on the other hand, are time related. That is, reinforcement is provided after a certain amount of time.

Both types of intermittent reinforcement schedules can be either fixed or variable. Fixed and variable schedules often result in higher rates of performance than continuous schedules because learners do not know when reinforcement will be provided so they continue to work for it. Most teachers/practitioners naturally use fixed ratio or interval schedules. For example, most teachers and other practitioners do not provide reinforcement each time a learner uses a target skill simply because their attention is divided among several students at one time.

Reinforcement schedules are often used for different purposes. For instance, fixed schedules are more effective at shaping behaviors; whereas, variable schedules are useful when teachers/practitioners want to help a learner with ASD maintain a newly acquired skill. Different Types of Reinforcement Schedules, available in the module documents section, or by clicking the link, provides a description of the reinforcement schedules that can be used to fade reinforcement with learners with ASD.

When selecting reinforcers, teachers/practitioners should focus on selecting reinforcers that are inexpensive, do not take a lot of staff time to use, and, whenever possible, are natural (Alberto & Troutman, 2008; Henry & Myles, 2007; Reichle & Johnson, 2007).

It is important to note that negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment. The difference between the two is that negative reinforcement is used to increase the target behavior, whereas punishment is used to decrease a behavior.

Why Use Reinforcement?

Correct use of reinforcement is one of the most important components of effective educational services for learners with ASD (Aspy & Grossman, 2007; Henry & Myles, 2007). Positive and negative reinforcement as well as token economy programs can be used to teach a variety of skills, such as learning toilet training, expanding speech production, decreasing interfering behaviors (e.g., drooling, disruptive), increasing on-task behavior, and increasing physical activity. Although reinforcement is an essential component of instructional programs and activities, the following factors may make implementing reinforcement with learners with ASD challenging.

• Attention problems. A potential solution is to increase the rate of reinforcement when initially teaching a new skill to learners with ASD to promote engagement and increase their success during a teaching activity.
• Narrow and unusual interestsand decreased interest in social praise. This can make the identification of potential reinforcers particularly challenging. Sensory reinforcers (e.g., squishy balls, playing with beans, white noise machine) may be motivating for learners who seek sensory input. The important consideration is that reinforcers must be individualized and sufficiently motivate learners to take part in learning activities that focus on the development of target skills (Aspy & Grossman, 2007).

Who Can Use Reinforcement and Where Can It Be Used?

Reinforcement can be used by a variety of professionals, including general education teachers, special educators, therapists, classroom assistants, parents, peers, and siblings in a variety of educational and community-based environments.

With What Ages Is Reinforcement Most Effective?

Reinforcement can be used effectively with learners with ASD across the age range, regardless of cognitive level and/or expressive communicative abilities. The evidence base identified by the National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorders shows that reinforcement is an effective practice that can be used with learners with ASD ranging from 3 to 22 years of age.

What Other Factors Should Be Considered Before Using Reinforcement?

When implementing a reinforcement program, teachers/practitioners should consider four additional factors: (a) principles of reinforcement, (b) satiation, (c) deprivation, and (d) habituation.

Principles of Reinforcement

When implementing reinforcement, teachers/practitioners should keep in mind several principles.

Reinforcement should be delivered according to a planned reinforcement schedule.

Initially, teachers/practitioners immediately provide learners with reinforcement after they use the target skill. As learners become more proficient, teachers/practitioners gradually fade the use of reinforcement.

Reinforcement should be delivered frequently.

This principle is particularly important when a learner with ASD is first learning a new skill. If the target skill is not reinforced frequently, the learner may not use the skill enough for it to become well established.

Reinforcement should be delivered enthusiastically.

When teachers/practitioners provide reinforcement with enthusiasm, learners with ASD begin to realize that they have done something important.

Teachers/practitioners establish eye contact when providing reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners should look learners in the eye when delivering a reinforcer even if the learner is not looking at them. Making eye contact suggests to learners that they have done something important and that they have a teacher's undivided attention. Eye contact itself may become reinforcing over time if used consistently.

Teachers/practitioners describe the target skill when reinforcement is provided.

By describing the skill, teachers/practitioners identify the behavior that is being reinforced. This is particularly important for learners with ASD because they may not know what behavior or skill resulted in the reinforcement.

Teachers/practitioners pair any reinforcement with social reinforcement, whenever possible.

Because learners with ASD are generally not motivated by social reinforcers such as praise, teachers/practitioners should provide social reinforcement in conjunction with other types of reinforcement (e.g., tangible, activity). When this is done, learners with ASD learn that interacting with other individuals is fun, and social reinforcement becomes more motivating to learners with ASD.

A variety of reinforcers are used.

Over time, learners with ASD may grow tired of the same reinforcer. As a result, they may stop using the target skill because they are no longer motivated to do so. Reinforcers should be changed frequently so that reinforcement continues to be effective.

Reinforcers are age appropriate.

Teachers/practitioner should identify reinforcers that are appropriate for the age of the learner. For example, it may not be appropriate to use stickers with a high school-aged learner with ASD who receives services in an inclusive setting (Rhode, Jensen, & Reavis, 1992).

Satiation

The term satiation is generally used to identify a situation in which a selected reinforcer is no longer motivating to a learner with ASD. Satiation generally occurs if the same reinforcer is used over an extended period of time or if too much reinforcement is delivered. When satiation occurs, learners become less motivated to use target skills and generally stop using them. It is also important to note that a particular reinforcer may be reinforcing one day and not the next.

Having a menu of reinforcers helps prevent satiation by providing a variety of reinforcers from which teachers/practitioners and learners with ASD can choose. Steps for preventing satiation are included in the positive reinforcement Step-by-Step Instructions section of this module (Alberto & Troutman, 2008; Reichle & Johnson, 2007).