Lecture S15 -- The Confederacy and the United States in 1861

The Development of American Secessionism:

John C. Calhoun: Representative, Senator, and Vice President, Calhoun’s career reflects the gradual development of a distinct Southern regional interest based on the protection of slavery, often using States Rights as a shield against Federal authority. Calhoun began as one of the young National Republican nationalists in the 1810s, putting forward a federal agenda of economic development. After 1820, however, his ambitions in the national arena fell short and he began to position himself as a champion of the South.

Nullification: The failure of attempts to put forward Nullification as a way to veto federal authority ultimately led to the beginnings of Southern secessionism, though it remained a fringe movement for many years.

1850: The 1850 crisis enabled the ‘fire eaters’ to take the lead and begin pushing for secession as a solution to the South’s problems in the Union. Calhoun in his final speeches threatened that secession would be the final resort of the South if it couldn’t meet its needs in the Union.

Nashville Convention: After the end of the Mexican War, various congressmen and John Calhoun set things in motion to gather a convention at Nashville to discuss the state of the South. 175 delegates from nine states met in Nashville, June 3-12, 1850. They put forth a platform for extension of the Missouri Compromise line and various resolutions, then resolved to gather again if Congress did not meet their demands. However, the passage of the Compromise of 1850 basically knocked the wind out of the sails of the convention. It’s second meeting made impotent noises about secession rights, but nothing came of it.

The Fire-Eaters vs. Cooperationists: Secession sentiments remained largely mute in the 1850s, except among a group of radicals known as the Fire Eaters, who continued to push for secession at every opportunity. Secessionism had proved to be hampered, however, by the split between the most radical, willing to secede with even a single state, and the cooperationists who favored united Southern action. For most of the 1850s, however, the point was moot, as the general Southern public did not favor secession.

Radical Success: This period of failure, however, built up a network of secessionists who were swift to act in 1860, ensuring a degree of cooperation which quickly brought together delegates from seceeding states and got the cooperationists to go along with the whole thing.

Montgomery, Alabama—Birthplace of the Confederacy

The Convention Meets: Delegates from Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina, Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana and Florida met on February 1, 1861 to begin forming the Confederate States of America. These 7 states had 4,969,141 total people (2,312,352 were slaves and 2,646,789 were free.)

The Delegates:

“The delegates who gathered in Montgomery mirrored, in their occupations, their interest in politics, and in their stake in slavery, the elite of the society they represented. In early March when the Texas delegation arrived, their numbers rose to fifty. Of these, forty-two were lawyers and thirty-three described themselves as planters (including twenty-seven of the lawyers). Forty-eight were native Southerners, forty-nine were slave owners. Twenty-one owned at least 20 slaves and one owned 473. Thirty-eight were college graduates. Almost all had extensive political experience: twenty-three had served in the U.S. Congress; sixteen were former or sitting judges, including two state chief justices; two had been in national cabinets, and a third had been in the cabinet of the Republic of Texas. Oddly, one of the most influential members of the convention had no political experience per se. Thomas R. R. Cobb, the "James Madison" of the Confederate Constitution, had never held an elective office, although he had been the first reporter of the Georgia Supreme Court. He was also one of the South's foremost legal scholars and the author of the influential An Inquiry into the Law of Negro Slavery (1858). “ (

Radicals Pushed Aside: The first thing to take place was that the radicals, the Fire Eaters who had done so much to make this possible, quickly found themselves sidelined by moderates, and even ex-Unionists like Alexander Stephens. This is because many of them were simply too radical, wishing to do things like re-opening the slave trade and making the nation less democratic.

President Davis: On February 18, 1861, the convention elected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, who had renounced secession in the years leading up to the war, as one year acting President of the Confederate States of America; Alexander Stephens of Georgia, a former Unionist, was vice president.

Spirit of ‘No Party’: Like their forefathers, the Confederates put forward a spirit of renunciation of party, hoping to avoid the Partisan divisions of previous years. The result, as in colonial politics, was a politics of personality and faction.

Elite Leadership: The Southern leadership tended to distrust democracy; Confederate politics tended to be dominated by the wealthy; many of the poorer folks became Unionists and opposed the rich by less direct means. It is noteworthy that no Southern state allowed the public to directly vote on secession.

Protection of Slavery: The central goal of the new government was the preservation of slavery. This was the reasoning behind secession and it drove the new constitution.

The Confederate Constitution

Modified US Constitution: What emerged was a slightly modified version of the US Constitution, designed to avoid what was seen as the major problems of the old Constitution.

No Right of Secession: It is perhaps noteworthy that the Confederate Constitution held no right of Secession; many Secessionists felt to include such a thing would be to admit it was illegitimate to have seceded from the US Constitution.

Slavery:

Free Transit: It was explicitly guaranteed that slaveowners could take their slaves anywhere in the Confederacy.

Fugitive Slave Law: Provisions for recovery of fugitive slaves were provided.

Protected Slave Property: Congress could not make any law which would deprive someone of their slaves.

Territorial Law: The Confederate constitution explicitly protected slavery in the territories.

States Rights: The Confederate Constitution emphasized the sovereignty and independence of each state; they thus sought to protect state rights more thoroughly.

Impeachment: The States could impeach federal judges and officials solely resident inside a state.

Ship Taxes: States could lay duties on water vessels to raise money for harbor maintenance.

Suit Protection: States could not be sued by residents of other states.

Anti-Development: The Confederate government was explicitly forbidden to spend money on promoting industry or other internal improvements and protective tariffs were banned.

Focused Law: Every law had to be pertaining to only one subject; no omnibus bills.

The Presidency:

Single Term: Presidents served a single six year term.

Line-Item Veto: The Confederate President was given a line-item veto for appropriations bills.

Cabinet: Cabinet officers could be fired by the President at will. Everyone else required cause--"dishonesty, incapacity, inefficiency, misconduct, or neglect of duty." . Cabinet officers could serve in Congress.

Jefferson Davis, Confederate President

From Petty Planter to Great Planter: Davis was one of many children of an ambitious father who sought to break into cotton planting during the push west of the Appalachians. Jefferson would himself eventually become a great planter; his father was not so lucky.

West Point: Jefferson attended West Point and became an officer, serving in the army in the 1820s and 30s as a low level officer. During that time, he befriended Zachary Taylor and eventually left the army to marry Zachary’s daughter, Sarah Knox Taylor, only to have her rapidly sicken and die.

Democratic Politician: In the 1830s-50s, Davis became a significant figure in the politics of Mississippi. He served as both Representative and Senator.

National Expansionist: Davis then served in the Mexican war as commander of the Mississippi Rifles, a volunteer unit, and fought with Taylor.

Southern Nationalist: Post-Mexican War, Davis flirted with Secessionism, but eventually moved to opposition to it, seeing it as unnecessary. He went on to serve as Franklin Pierce’s Secretary of War and Senator from Mississippi. .

Davis as Political Leader: Like John Quincy Adams, he was a kind, honest, just individual who was poorly suited for any role which required flexibility or compromise. Furthermore, as President, he tended to micromanage his subordinates, especially a series of Secretaries of War he sent screaming into the Wilderness. Conversely, if you earned his loyalty, he would stick by you, even if you proved incompetent for your work, like Braxton Bragg. Davis was probably better suited for the military service he had originally sought out, being reasonably competent and effective in the role of officer.

And Yet...: Despite this, Davis was probably one of the best suited men for the role in the Confederacy, which simply lacked men who were good at compromise—those interested in compromise weren’t so likely to secede after all.

Confederate Resources:

Original Secession: The first seven states to secede had less than no chance of victory in a war. They were hugely outnumbered by the remaining states, had no good defensible frontiers, lacked industrial capacity and couldn’t even make their own cannon.

The Upper South: The secession of the Upper South greatly increased the South’s manufacturing capacity by adding Richmond and Nashville to the South’s ranks, and increased its manpower, food, and wealth, adding 1,208,758 slaves and 2,935,433 free men to the population of the Confederacy, which ended up with 9,103,332 total residents (3,521,110 slaves and 5,582,222 free (almost all White).

"Richmond was situated between the plantations of the Tidewater and the farms of the Piedmont, and it benefited from its location along major trade routes. It was an industrial powerhouse as well: it had 52 tobacco manufacturers, 12 flour mills, a distillery and a brewery. It was the iron center of the South, with four rolling mills, 14 foundries and 50 iron and metal works lining the James River. The largest plant, the Tredegar Iron Works, employed 900 workers and was one of the city’s landmarks."[1] 38,000 before the war, 130-150,000 by the end.

The Tredegar plant was crucial to the Confederate war effort. In early 1861: "Although Tredegar was not immune to the financial panic that rocked Southern markets and industries following Lincoln’s election, Anderson successfully capitalized on political events in a campaign of solicitations to seceding Southern governors, who were rapidly arming themselves. By mid-January Tredegar was sending shot, shell and powder to South Carolina, along with 10-inch mortars. Newspapers as far away as New York reportec on the “[o]ne thousand kegs of powder and twenty thousand pounds of shot and shell” in the ironworks’ first shipment to Charleston. Within a week, Tredegar was making nearly daily shipments to South Carolina, and by April 9, Charleston had received 11,516 rounds of cannon and mortar ammunition from Anderson’s factory, along with seven mortars and three Dahlgren guns. "[2]

" Anderson’s business acumen served the Confederacy well: Tredegar produced over 1,000 cannons during the war, along with additional munitions and railroad supplies. It served Anderson even better: he was among the handful of Richmond business leaders who met with Lincoln when the president visited the captured capital on April 4, 1865. In the following months he met with President Andrew Johnson as well, winning a pardon and thereby avoiding confiscation of his property."[3]

North vs. South:

Wealth: South had 25% of the nation’s wealth.

Farmland: South had 25% of the nation’s farmland.

Railroad Milage: South had 29% of the railroad lines.

Factory Production: South had 9% of the nation’s industrial capacity

Population: South had 29% of the nation’s population, but a large chunk of that was black, and thus wouldn’t fight and had to be guarded against.

Northern Soldiers: Some 2.1 million men served the Union; 50% of the men of military age. Only 8% were drafted.

Southern Soldiers: Some 900,000 men served the South; 90% of those of military age. 20% of those were drafted.

Cotton: Many Southerners counted on Cotton sales to fund the nation’s war and to force intervention by European governments. ‘Cotton is King’. "Cotton exports in 1860 were about $192 million, or 90 percent of the South’s total overseas trade."[4] France and Britain were both heavily dependent on Southern Cotton. Unfortunately, the years before the war saw a Cotton glut, and France and Britain both were able to draw on reserves; the British then pushed cotton growth in India and other nations began taking up the slack. "But the dangerous consequences of having an economy based on a single crop soon became apparent. The Union blockade proved more effective than the South had predicted; exports soon dropped to less than a quarter of their prewar level. And those blockade-running ships that succeeded in eluding the U.S. Navy also usually eluded the Confederate revenue agents; the rebel government managed to collect export duties on only about 5 percent of all its cotton. Meanwhile, cut off from Northern supplies of wheat, corn, pork and beef, the South soon began experiencing food shortages, and before long, the government in Richmond actually began passing laws to limit cotton production, hoping thus to stimulate the growth of more edible crops."[5] Nevertheless, smuggled Southern cotton did help to fund the war.

Military Experience: One of the few areas where the South had superiority was that the South was disproportionately home to ex-military officers compared to the North, relative to population. Many Southern officers had gained military experience in the Mexican War.

State and Federal Armories: Each state had state armories; they also seized all the federal armories and forts they could; this provided a lot of the early weaponry for the South.

Slaves: Slaves were both a liability and an asset. They freed up more of the White males to fight, but at the same time, the fear of slave rebellion hung over the nation. Also, constitutional provisions made it hard for the Confederate government to tap them as a resource. "Moral issues aside, slavery proved even more disastrous as a basis for the South’s wartime economy. In 1860, the South’s 4 million enslaved human beings were worth between $3 billion and $4 billion: the largest single asset in the entire United States, representing more than the value of all the nation’s railroads and factories combined. Slaves, even more than land, were Southern planters’ safest and most lucrative investment. Prices had been skyrocketing — doubling in the 1850s alone. Natural human reproduction ensured a further return. Slaves could easily be rented, mortgaged, or liquidated. A planter’s slaves were often, in modern terms, not just his work force, but also his stock portfolio."[6]

War Nationalism and States Rights

The Necessities of War: The central problem of the Confederacy was that it was born in the crucible of war, and the necessities of prosecuting that war encroached steadily on States’ Rights and on the spirit of minimal government in general.

State and Federal Regulation of Economic Production: States and the Confederate government increasingly encroached on free economic activity.

Key Resources: Key resources, such as salt, iron, guns, ammunition, etc, were brought under governmental control, and either heavily regulated or else brought under direct government control.

Food Production: The Confederate and state governments sought to push plantation owners to produce food to meet the increasing food deficit of the South; unfortunately, planters fought back hard, and food became increasingly inflated in value.

Slave Labor: Because slave labor was controlled by planters and protected by law, it was often unavailable to meet national and state needs, though both tried to direct its use as best they could.

Civil Liberties: The Confederate Government sometimes trampled on civil rights.

Suspension of Habeas Corpus: Congress frequently allowed Davis to impose martial law and/or suspend the right of Habeas Corpus, thus allowing for arbitrary arrest. Davis was not the type to abuse this too heavily, though.

The Draft: The Confederacy imposed the first draft in American history; eventually, 20% of Confederates would serve via the Draft. This crushed a traditional American liberty underfoot, and was challenged, but not successfully. It also made state authorities crazy.

States Rights Issues:

The Draft: The Draft claimed priority of the Confederate Government over states; they could direct the military manpower called by it as they saw fit. This included drafting those in the service of the state. Governors really hated that.

Confederate/State relations: Governors jockeyed to keep as much control of state resources as possible; Davis frequently became quite wroth over this.