AP Biology Semester 1 Study Guide

AP Biology Semester 1 Study Guide / January 19
2016
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Unit I: Chemistry of Life (Chapters 2, 3, and 6)

Chemistry

  1. Draw and describe the following types of bonds:
  2. Ionic
  1. Covalent (polar and non-polar covalent)
  1. Hydrogen
  1. Give an example of a compound/molecule that displays each type of bond listed above.

Water

  1. List five properties of water. Define each property. Explain how each property is advantageous for a particular organism. Be specific in your examples.

Organic Molecules

  1. What is an organic molecule?
  1. What is the difference between a monomer and a polymer?
  1. What are functional groups? List the functional groups studied in class. Draw a picture of each type of functional group. Provide an example of a molecule in which each functional group can be found.

Carbohydrates

  1. Draw a monosaccharide (the monomer of all carbohydrates).
  1. What is the formula for glucose?
  1. Draw and give the function for the following carbohydrates.
  2. Sucrose
  1. Starch
  1. Cellulose
  1. Glycogen
  1. Chitin (You don’t have to draw this one)
  1. In what types of foods do you find carbohydrates?

Lipids

  1. Draw and give the function for the following lipids.
  2. Triglycerides (fats…saturated and unsaturated)
  1. Phospholipids
  1. Steroids (cholesterol and sex hormones)

Proteins

  1. Draw an amino acid (the monomer of a protein).
  1. Give the five major groups of proteins and one example of how each group is used in the body.
  1. How are amino acids joined together?
  1. Draw and describe the following protein structures.
  2. Primary
  1. Secondary (alpha helix and beta pleated) (fibrous)
  1. Tertiary (globular) Give the three types of bonds that help form the tertiary structure and explain the hydrophobic effect.
  1. Quaternary structure

Nucleic Acids

  1. Draw a nucleotide (the monomer of nucleic acids).
  1. Give the five types of nitrogen bases and identify them as purines or pyrimidines. (AGriculture is pure… or AG—“always glow”)
  1. Draw a simplified molecule of RNA and one of DNA and give the basic functions of each.

Enzymes

  1. Enzymes are globular, quaternary structured proteins. What is the main function of an enzyme?
  1. What is activation energy and how do enzymes affect the activation energy in a reaction?
  1. What is the difference between catabolism and anabolism? Together, these reactions are referred to as metabolism.
  1. Draw a picture of an enzyme catalyzed reaction and label the following.
  2. Substrate, active site, enzyme, enzyme-substrate complex, products
  1. Why do enzymes follow the so-called lock and key model or induced fit model?
  1. Give an example of three enzymes and their substrates. How do you know which one is the enzyme, if only given the names?
  1. How can improper pH and/or temperature affect enzyme function?
  1. Give an example of a coenzyme and a cofactor and describe how each works.
  1. Enzyme Inhibitors: Explain how competitive, noncompetitive and allosteric inhibitors work and draw an example of how each works.
  1. Describe the concept of negative feedback with regards to enzyme function.

Unit II: The Cell (Chapters 4-5)

Cell Classification

  1. What is the difference between a prokaryote and a eukaryote?
  1. Give examples of each.
  1. Give four differences between plant and animal cells.

Cell Membrane Structure

  1. Draw a section of the plasma membrane and label the following…Beside each label, provide the function of each structure
  2. Phospholipids
  1. Hydrophilic heads
  1. Hydrophobic tails
  1. Cholesterol
  1. Integral and transmembrane proteins: channel, transport, electron transport (see chemiosmosis)
  1. Peripheral proteins: recognition, receptor, and adhesion

Cell organelles

  1. Cut and paste a picture of the plant and the animal cell and beside each label listed below, provide the functions of the organelles. You may need to draw some in.
  2. Nucleus
  1. Ribosomes,
  1. Rough ER
  1. Smooth ER
  1. Golgi body
  1. Vesicles
  1. Mitochondria
  1. Chloroplasts
  1. Lysosomes
  1. Centrioles
  1. Vacuoles
  1. Flagella
  1. Cilia
  1. Cell Wall
  1. Cut and paste your drawings of the cell junctions and give examples of cells that display each type of junction.

Cell Membrane Function

  1. What does it mean that the cell membrane is selectively permeable?
  1. Create a chart comparing the following processes: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and active transport.

Include the following in your chart:

  1. passive or active
  1. with or against the gradient
  1. proteins or no proteins involved
  1. if proteins are involved, what type
  1. substances moved by each process
  1. Draw a cell in a hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solution
  1. Describe the process of plasmolysis
  1. Vesicular transport: Draw the processes of exocytosis, endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis)

Unit III: Cell Processes: Energy and Communication (Chapters 7-8)

Cell Respiration

  1. Give the formula
  1. All organisms undergo glycolysis in their cytoplasm. What is glycolysis?
  1. All eukaryotes undergo chemiosmosis in their mitochondria. Why don’t prokaryotes?
  1. Describe the basic structure of ATP and describe the energy cycle between ADP and ATP.

Glycolysis

  1. Glucose is broken down into ______.
  2. How many ATP’s are invested? What is the net yield of ATP?
  1. How many NADH are produced?
  1. Where does this occur?

Kreb’s Cycle (aka Citric Acid Cycle)

  1. What are the 2 pyruvates converted into before they can enter the citric acid cycle?
  1. What is released in the process?
  1. How many ATP’s are released?
  1. How many NADH’s? Where do they go?
  1. How many FADH2’s? Where do they go?
  1. In animal respiration, what happens to the CO2 that is released?
  1. Where does this occur?

Electron Tranport Chain

  1. Why is this process called chemiosmosis or oxidative phosphorylation?
  1. What do the NADH and the FADH2 do for this process?
  1. Describe the ETC. Be sure to include NADH, FADH2, cytochrome carrier proteins, H+ ions, concentration gradient, pump, ATP synthase, ADP, ATP, oxygen as the final electron acceptor.
  1. What is produced when oxygen accepts the final electons?
  1. How many ATP’s are produced?
  1. Where does this occur?

Anaerobic Respiration

  1. What happens if no oxygen is present in the cell after glycolysis?
  1. What is the difference between anaerobic respiration in animals vs. anaerobic respiration in plants, yeast, and bacteria?
  1. What is another name for anaerobic respiration?

Photosynthesis

  1. Give the equation for photosynthesis.
  1. What types of organisms undergo photosynthesis?
  1. What is the purpose of photosynthesis?

Light Reaction (aka Noncylic photophosphorylation)

  1. Provide a flowchart for the steps of the light reaction. It might be nice to draw the steps too. Include the following terms:
  2. photosystem II (P680)
  3. photolysis
  4. primary electron acceptor
  5. electron transport chain
  6. ADP-ATP
  7. Photosystem I (P700)
  8. Primary electron acceptor
  9. Electron transport chain
  10. NADP-NADPH
  1. Where do all of these steps occur?
  1. What is cyclic photophosphoylation?

Calvin Cycle (aka Dark Reacations)

  1. Provide a flowchart for the steps of the Calvin cycle. It might be nice to draw the steps too. Include the following terms:
  2. Carbon fixation
  3. Rubisco
  4. CO2
  5. RuBP
  6. PGA (3C)
  7. Glucose (6C)
  1. Where does this process take place?

C4 and CAM Photosynthesis

  1. What happens when there is not enough carbon dioxide entering the leaf?
  1. C4 Photosynthesis: A 2 step process where carbon is fixed in two different cells

Draw a flowchart for C4 photosynthesis and include the following:

Mesophyll cells

PEP Carboxylase

4C “storage” compounds (oxaloacetate)

Bundle sheath cells

Rubisco

Calvin Cycle

  1. Which plants undergo C4 photosynthesis?
  1. CAM Photosynthesis: A 2 step process where carbon is fixed at different times of the day. Draw a flowchart for CAM photosynthesis and include the following:
  2. Stomates open
  3. Night
  4. Carbon “storage” compound
  5. Day
  6. Stomates closed
  7. Calvin Cycle
  8. CO2
  1. Which plants undergo CAM photosynthesis?

Unit IV: From Gene to Protein (Chapters 9-12)

Cell Cycle

  1. Name the four functions of cell division (mitosis)
  1. Which cells divide by mitosis?
  1. Distinguish between the following terms and name the phase of the cell cycle in which you would find these structures.
  2. Chromosomes
  1. Chromatids
  1. Centromere
  1. Complementary strands
  1. What happens during G1, S, G2, and GO of interphase?
  1. Name the major events of prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
  1. How is cytokinesis different in animal cells and plant cells?
  1. How are the following involved in cell division…
  2. Surface to volume ratio
  1. Density dependent inhibition
  1. Checkpoints

Meiosis

  1. Which cells divide by meiosis?
  2. Meiosis I: List the phases of meiosis I and include the following terms as you describe the phases.
  3. Reduction division
  4. Homologous chromosomes
  5. Diploid
  6. 2n
  7. Crossing Over
  8. Tetrad
  9. Synapsis
  10. Independent assortment
  1. Meiosis II: List the phases of meiosis II and include the following terms as you describe the phases.
  2. Haploid
  3. 1n
  4. Sister chromatids
  1. Which process produces genetic variation and recombination, mitosis or meiosis?

Heredity

  1. Define or describe the following Mendelian inheritance terms. Draw, or include a sample punnett square problem, for each of these terms.
  2. Locus
  1. Gene
  1. Allele
  1. Homologous pairs
  1. Dominant
  1. Recessive
  1. Phenotype
  1. Genotype
  1. Homozygous
  1. Heterozygous
  1. Monohybrid cross
  1. Dihybrid cross
  1. P, F1, F2 generations
  1. Test cross
  1. Describe the following rules and laws of Mendel’s and give examples of each.
  2. Dominance
  1. Segregation
  1. Independent Assortment
  1. Define or describe the following non-Mendelian Inheritance patterns. Draw, or include a sample Punnett square problem, for each of these terms.
  2. Incomplete dominance
  1. Codominance
  1. Multiple alleles
  1. Epistasis
  1. Pleiotropy
  1. Polygenic inheritance
  1. Linkage
  1. Sex-linked
  1. X inactivation
  1. Non-disjunction
  1. Deletion
  1. Duplication
  1. Translocation
  1. Inversion

DNA Replication

  1. Describe the steps for DNA Replication by creating a flowchart. Use the following terms in your description.
  2. Semiconservative replication
  3. Template strand
  4. DNA polymerase
  5. Leading strand
  6. Lagging strand
  7. Helicase
  8. Replication fork
  9. Single stranded binding proteins
  10. DNA ligase
  11. Okazaki fragments
  12. RNA primase
  13. RNA primer
  14. 3’ and 5’ ends
  1. Where in the cell does replication occur?
  1. Draw examples of the following types of gene mutations
  2. Point (aka substitution)
  1. Frameshift (insertion and deletion)

Protein Synthesis

  1. Describe the experiment that led to the one-gene-one-enzyme hypothesis (one-gene-one-polypeptide)
  1. Describe the steps of transcription while including the following terms
  2. mRNA
  3. RNA polymerase
  4. RNA processing
  5. Introns
  6. Exons
  7. 5’ cap
  8. Poly-A tail
  9. Splicesomes
  1. Where in the cell does transcription occur?

Translation

  1. Describe the steps of translation while including the following terms
  2. mRNA
  3. codon
  4. tRNA
  5. anticodon
  6. rRNA
  7. ribosome
  8. small RNA subunit
  9. large RNA subunit
  10. P site
  11. A site
  12. Wobble
  13. Stop Codon
  14. Start Codon (Met)
  15. Initiation
  16. Elongation
  17. Termination
  1. Where in the cell does translation occur?
  1. Name three ways that replication and protein synthesis are different in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.