Antonio Gramsci Biographical Information
Ed 270
Lindsay Fisher
Oct. 9, 2001
History of the Subaltern Classes; The Concept of “Ideology”; Cultural Themes; Ideological Material - Antonio Gramsci, Pgs. 43 – 47, Media and Cultural Studies KeyWorks
ANTONIO GRAMSCI – BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Born in Sardinia, Italy, in January of 1891, Antonio Gramsci became a leader in the Neo-Marxist school of thought. At age eleven, Gramsci left school for work to help support his family. He returned to school and in 1911, won a scholarship to University of Turin, where he would study humanities, linguistics, and various social sciences. In 1915, Gramsci embarked on a journalistic career and became active in the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and eventually helped found “The New Order: A Weekly Review of Socialist Culture.” He held that socialists should use their influence to steer the country toward revolution rather than chauvinism. During the Bolshevik revolution, Gramsci, a radical leftist, identified with aims of the Russian revolutionary leadership and socialist transition in the capitalistic world. In 1921 he sided with the Communist minority and became a member of the Italian Communist party (PCI). He lived in Moscow for one and a half years as an Italian delegate to the communist party. He married a member of the Russian Communist Party, Julka Schucht, a violinist, and had two sons.
In 1926, Gramsci was arrested in Rome by the fascist regime and sent to solitary confinement. In 1928, he was sentenced with other Italian Communist leaders to more than twenty years in prison. Gramsci was ill for much of his life and the conditions and deprivations of prison worsened his condition (I also read that he was dropped as a child and grew to be only an inch or two short of five feet). Gramsci died in April of 1937 of a cerebral hemorrhage. It was in prison that he wrote his Prison Notebooks and numerous articles and letters (which he sent to his sister-in-law, Tania Schucht, who later catalyzed their publication).
It is helpful to keep in mind that the following writings were written by a person who was expressing his response to fascism, the ruling political force during his life. Gramsci’s writings gave rise to new political philosophy and definitions, specifically, of hegemonic theory, which involved the analysis of current forms of domination as well as the deliniation of counter-hegemonic forces.
HISTORY OF SUBALTERN CLASSES
“The fundamental historical unity… results from the organic relations between state or political society and ‘civil society’” (pg. 43). Gramsci later discusses two types of ideology – those that are organic, psychological, which organize masses, and those that are arbitrary, which create individual movements and controversy.
Subaltern (subordinate) states are not and cannot unite until they are able to become a state. Therefore it is necessary to study:
1. Formation of subaltern social groups, their developments in economic production, their quantitative diffusion and origins in pre-existing social groups
2. Their affiliation to the dominant political formations, attempts to influence, and their consequences
3. Birth of new parties of dominant groups to maintain control over subaltern
4. Formations that subaltern classes produce
5. New formations which assert autonomy of subaltern groups within old framework
6. Formations that assert integral autonomy (i.e. trade unions, reformist parties, communist parties, etc.)
The historian must follow line of development toward integral autonomy.
Supremacy of a social group manifests itself in domination and intellectual and moral leadership (pg. 44). This illustrates a distinction between domination and hegemony (hegemony requires consent – no regime can survive based on force alone, it requires popular support as well). An example is the influence of demagogues, who are typically charismatic individuals who gain power at a time of political unrest and target a scapegoat, which is effective when the masses are fearful of the future and need a source of hope.
A social group must exercise leadership before winning government power.
CONCEPT OF IDEOLOGY
Ideology was an aspect of ‘sensationalism,’ which can be associated with religious faith (i.e. Eighteenth Century French materialism).
Meanings of ideology: science of ideas, analysis of ideas, “investigation of the origin of ideas.” Eventually became “system of ideas.” Webster’s New College Dictionary (Ó1999) defines ideology as “The body of ideas reflecting the social needs and aspirations of an individual, group, class, or culture.” Gramsci indicated that Freud is the last of the Ideologues (pg.44).
Ideology assumed a negative value judgment in Marxist philosophy. Must be analyzed as a superstructure:
1. Ideology as distinct from structure – structure changes ideology, not the opposite
2. Given political solution is “ideological”
3. Ideology is pure appearance, useless
Marx discussed the ‘solidarity of popular beliefs’ as a necessary element. He held that popular conviction often had same energy as material force. Gramsci presented the conception of historical bloc, that material forces are content and ideologies are form with instructive value only.
CULTURAL THEMES – IDEOLOGICAL MATERIAL
Ideological structure influences by cultural media/ the press (books, newspapers, periodicals, etc.) as well as libraries, associations, clubs, even architecture and layout of the streets – cultural propaganda. Ideology is molded by media culture, in overt and discreet ways.
Schools have both coercive and non-coercive influence – i.e. mandatory education and education at the discretion of the curriculum planner or instructor.