An Experimental Study of Learner Autonomy in Language Learning
Chang Shih Chuan
Assistant Professor of the Department of Applied Foreign Languages
ChengShiuUniversity
Abstract
Autonomous learning has greatly developed both on theory and practice ever since its appearance in 1960s. It has become a hot issue in educational field over the past forty years and it is important to cultivate learners’ability of self-directed inquiry.The ultimate goal of quality-oriented education is to promote learner autonomy. But its promotion through systematic learnerdevelopment is a relatively recent phenomenon, let alone the one proposed by Scharleand Szabo (2000). After some modification, the program intends to make the studentsbe aware of the importance of responsible attitude and independent learning ability. Thepurpose is to develop the students’learning performance, give guidance on theirlearning strategies, and develop their interest in language learning.
Two non-English major classes participated in the experiment. The learnerdevelopment program lasted for one semester. Duringthe course, the SILL questionnaire and language proficiency test were used and boththe methods of interview and classroom observation were employed. Besides,students were asked to write regular journals to keep track of their learning experience.Comparisons were made in the following three aspects: the language performance inthe test; a change of learning strategies; stimulation of interest.
The results show that using the content of regular school classroom teaching as ameaningful context for the development of responsibility can not only enhance thelearning effect, but also save time for the optional strategy training. According to thescores in the post-test are concerned, the experimental group had a high mean scorethan the control group. The two sets of questionnaire results show that theexperimental group benefited from the program by using more learning strategies.Besides, most of the students in the experimental group reported a higher interest inlanguage learning after the experiment. However, the control group showed no greatdifference in all these aspects
Key words: learner autonomy, autonomous learning, strategy
Introduction
Since the 1970s, research interest in learner autonomy andindependence has gained growing attention in foreign language learning, andthere has been a heated discussion about how teachers should teach and howlearners should learn in the context of language learning. The traditional way ofteaching foreign language lays emphasis onteaching instead of learning. The teacher, who explains the text in a traditionalgrammar-translation way and tries to put everything into students’ head (as iscalled cramming method of teaching), is in complete charge of class activities.This has severely prevented learners from thinking and learning independently.However, the present epoch is expecting and demanding more from people thanever before. Just learning by what teachers give is not enough, which means it’simportant for people to be independent learners. On the other hand, good teachersshould be able to cultivate learners’ ability to do things individually andindependently. Thus, more and more teachers accept thelearner-centered approach. According to this approach, both teachers and studentsparticipate in the teaching and learning process, accordingly, the students havemore opportunities to practice the four basic language skills efficiently. All thisneeds the ability of students’ autonomous learning as well as the change ofteachers’ role, and the former of which is just the ultimate goal of languagelearning. As a result, growing interest in the promotion of autonomy was foundsince the early 1970s. In Taiwan,the shift ofresearch to learner-centeredness and individual learners took place mainly in thelast ten years, but the research is far behind that of the Western countries. However,autonomous language learning has had some development in Taiwan since thecommunicative teaching method and some other learner-centered approaches wereintroduced to English teaching during the 1980s. Experiments have been made tofoster learner autonomy. Though many teachers realized the importance of learnerresponsibility and even tried to train their students to be autonomous both in andout of class through various activities, it seems that little formal academicdiscussion about learner autonomy has been held, let alonethe carrying out of systematically practiced learner development program that canbe integrated into classroom teaching.
In view of the situation described above, this academic paper, on the basis of reviewingthe current theory and practices of fostering learner autonomy in foreign language,aims to explore the feasibilities of one integrated learner development program inclassroom environment. Thispaper, by performing an experiment, also tries tojustify the effectiveness of the program on the development of learners’ languageperformance, their use of learning strategies and the stimulation of their interest.As no consensus has ever been reached on the concept of learner autonomy,the paper firstly reviews the definitions and studies on autonomy from differentangles. It takes the view that the understanding of learner autonomy requires abroader interpretation. It also explores various reasons to foster learner autonomyand believes that the promotion of learner autonomy is in urgent need and possible.In so doing, it argues that integrating learner development into regular classroomsetting is more practical in the Taiwanese context.Reasoning and arguing alone are not enough. This paper then gives a briefintroduction of the learner development program by Scharle and Szabo (2000) andthe modifications the author has made to it. An experiment was conducted totestify the effectiveness of the modified program. Students from two classesparticipated in the experiment, one as the experimental group that work with theprogram, while the other as the control group under the traditional teaching method.The experiment is both qualitative and quantitative and the results are satisfactory.
Based on the results of the experiment, this paper tries to explore theimplications of the program on foreign language teaching and puts forward somesuggestions on both the program and future research. It recommends that moreexperimental study is needed to examine this program thoroughly in an effort toextend it and correct it.
I. Literature Review
1.1 Definition of learner autonomy
Learner autonomy has been a widespread phenomenon in the context of foreignlanguage teaching or second language teaching.It was introduced into the field ofSL/FL pedagogy in the 1970s,and has drawn considerable attention of educationalresearchers ever since the 1980s,especially in recent years.
Little (1991) defines learner autonomy as “essentially a matter ofthe learner’s psychological relation to the process and content of learning. It is tobe found in a wide variety of behaviors as a capacity for detachment, criticalreflection, decision-making and independent action”. In his opinion, learnerautonomy presupposes a positive attitude to the purpose, content and process oflearning and thus developing positive attitudes towards this is crucial to thesuccess of the development of learner autonomy and is an essential, long term aimof any learner training program. Similarly, Benson (1996) suggests that a‘psychological view’ of autonomy focuses on the importance of the‘psychological’ or ‘internal’ capacities of the learner, such as cognitive andlearning styles, motivation, attitudes, aptitude and so on. Its goal is ultimately thelearners’responsibility for their own successes and failures in learning.Gardner,in his bookEstablishing Self-Access—From Theory to Practice,introduces the history of thisconcept and discusses the wide range of terms related to it and used in the languagefield.He thinks that the concept of learner autonomy“stemmed from debates aboutthe development of life-long learning skills and the development of independentthinkers,both of which originated in the 1960s”(Gardner,2002).Campbell defines learnerautonomy as“a quality enabling a person to interact with text or accomplish someother language task in a self-directed manner without significant or constantassistance from others”(Campbell 2004).
Since 1990s, many educationalists shifted their focus to the social aspects ofdeveloping autonomy in the field of foreign language teaching as a renewedinterest in Vygotsky’s works took place. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory suggeststhat development depends on interaction with people and the tools that the cultureprovides to help form their own view of the world. Therefore, learner autonomy isnot only concerned with the individual. It can only be developed through socialand collaborative learning. Benson (1996) suggests that “greater control overthe learning process, resources and language cannot be achieved by eachindividual acting alone according to his or her own preferences”and Lee(1998) calls for “a supportive environment” too. He believes that interaction,negotiation, collaboration, etc. are important factors in promoting learnerautonomy. However, individual autonomy is still the focus of learner autonomy inthe West until recent years. Social views of autonomy are believed to exist in whatis called collectivist societies.
Perhaps the most often quoted definition is still that ofHolec(1981), whodefines autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning”.To take charge of one’s own learning is to have, and to hold, the responsibilityfor allthe decisions concerning all aspects of this learning, i.e. 1) determining the objectives; 2) defining the contents and progressions; 3) selecting methods and techniques to be used; 4) monitoring the procedure of acquisition...; 5) evaluating what has been acquired. This definition adequately covers the man areas of the learning process inwhich one might expect the autonomous learner to exercise control. Besides, Holecbelieves that the ability to take charge of one’s own learning is not inborn but mustbe acquired in a systematic, deliberate way. His view that autonomy needed to beencouraged led to the development of a wide range of techniques and proceduresknown most commonly as “learner training”, or “learning to learn”.
Complex as the concept is, there are at least three generally accepted senses ofautonomy in language teaching. They are as follows: (1) Students should takeresponsibility for their own learning; (2) Teachers, courses and institutions influencethe development of this responsibility; (3) Learner autonomy is a goal of educationthat learners, teachers and institutions should work together to achieve.
1.2 Description of learner autonomy
The different definitions of learner autonomy stress on different aspects of theterm and lead to a partial understanding of the concept and often confuse thelanguage teachers with their stress on different dimensions. Therefore, what isneeded is a broader description. On a general note, the following thirteen aspects oflearner autonomy, adapted from Sinclair (1996), appear nowto have been recognized and broadly accepted: 1) Autonomy is a construct of capacity; 2) Autonomy involves a willingness on the part of the learner to take responsibilityfor their own learning;3) The capacity and willingness of learners to take such responsibility is notnecessarily innate;4) Complete autonomy is an idealistic goal;5) There are degrees of autonomy;6) The degrees of autonomy are unstable and variable;7) Autonomy is not simply a matter of placing learners in situations where theyhave to be independent;8) Developing autonomy requires conscious awareness of the learning process;9) Promoting autonomy is not simply a matter of teaching strategies;10) Autonomy can take place both inside and outside the classroom;11) Autonomy has a social as well as an individual dimension;12) The promotions of learner autonomy have a political as well as psychologicaldimension;13) Autonomy is interpreted differently by different cultures.
These aspects cover almost all the dimensions of the term and make it easy tounderstand. Among the above 13 aspects, what attract our attention most are thosedealing with the degrees of autonomy. Oxford (1990) insists that autonomy isnot an‘all-or-nothing’ concept. Nunan (1988) also says autonomy is not anabsolute concept, and there are degrees of autonomy.
To conclude, whether learner autonomy should be thought of as capacity orbehavior; whether it is characterized by learner responsibility or learner control;whether it is a psychological phenomenon with political implications or a politicalright with psychological implications; and whether the development of learnerautonomy depends on a complementary teacher autonomy, it is clearly notsomething which learners achieve without having the opportunities to learn or betaught, neither is it an all or nothing concept. It is something which is achievedover time with practice, experience and support, and, possibly with some degree ofmaturity. Teachers should take into account of all these aspects in facilitatingstudents to be autonomous.
1.3 Significance of developing learner autonomy
1.3.1 The inadequacy of formal instruction
In essence,the purpose of developing learner autonomy is to cultivate an abilityof learners’for continuing learning and life-long education.Of course,we shouldn’tdoubt about the role of formal instruction in FLA as it improves learners’secondlanguage proficiency and change the rate of second language learning,and provides achance for learners to learn systematically and efficiently.However,formalinstruction is not enough for learners to meet the constant change of our societybecause of some major issues.For example,it cannot provide limitless resources forlearners,and neither can it provide for learners with adequate knowledge learnersneed in the future;hence developing learner autonomy is undoubtedly the continuityof formal instruction to make up this inadequacy.Therefore,both of providingknowledge and developing learner independence,especially the latter,become thefundamental purpose of modern FLA.
1.3.2 The need of our changing society
Nowadays,our society is experiencing a series of changes.With the profoundrevolutions of science and technology,our society has entered the information era inwhich the tendency of globalization has been increasing.Education,supposed to meetthe changes of the society and serve for its further development,faces unprecedentedchanges,with the dramatic changes of new technology,and patterns of education arebeing changing greatly.Various kinds of educational patterns such as electroniceducation,home-based education,community-based education,Internet education areor will be available for people to meet their own needs,and,therefore,education willmeet its more objectives than ever before.In the meta-technological era,educationassumes more responsibilities,and the goals of education will be“education foremployment,education for life,education for the world,education forself-development and education for pleasure”(Schuller 1979).Even if the purposesmentioned above are proposed in the last century,they’re undoubtedly still the maingoals of current education,especially the purposes of education for life,for the world,as well as for pleasure.Not only transferring and implanting knowledge,cultivatingcreative thinking and life-long learning but also learning for a better life becomes theessential part of education.In other words,in the new era,how fast one can find outnew things,how much one can enjoy learning and make his own time,especially hisspare time,enjoyable seems more essential and significant.Under this situation,the role of teachers is no longer dominant,therelationship between teachers and students is no longer simple and the educationalprocess becomes more and more active and truly bilateral,in which students are thereal centers.In a word,life-long study becomes the need of the current and futuresociety,so autonomous learning becomes the demand of the society.Because thefuture society will be a‘learning society’,in which the human eagerness of learningand ability of autonomous learning will be substantial for future life.
II. Learner Autonomy in Language Learning
2.1 Possibilities of learner autonomy in language learning
In most of regular Taiwanese foreign language classroom teaching, thecomponent of learner autonomy training is often missing or ignored because of thetight teaching schedule for knowledge and skills. Teachers are busy explaininggrammar, vocabulary and skills to pass the exams instead of involving studentstaking on responsibility of their own learning and learning to learn. It seems thatlearner autonomy is not indigenous to the classroom, it has no roots there, and ithas no chance of even surviving or thriving in that alien environment. However,no matter how unfit the idea of autonomy may be in the whole-class environment,we can, if we look, find the elements of ‘autonomy’ and ‘individualization’ evenin that apparently uncongenial place.
Firstly, in recent years, teachers’ beliefs about learning and learners and aboutthemselves as functioning individuals within the role of a teacher changed a lot.Aiming to teach students enough language items to pass the examination willobviously have different implications for the approach to teaching compared withseeing learning a new language as a lifelong process. To view learners as resisters,receptacles and raw materials is more teacher dominated than to view them aspartners, individual and democratic explorers. In current Taiwanese foreign languageteaching context, many more teachers tend to favor the learner-centered approachand pave the right way for the promotion of learner autonomy.
Integrating autonomy in university classroom is possible because collegestudents have much more advantages in learning. Aside from the external factors, they are internally more prepared for autonomouslearning, both physically and psychologically. By “physically prepared”, it meansthat they are mature enough to take responsibilities for whatever they intend to doand they are competent enough to use metacognitive strategies to improve theirautonomous learning. Besides, the spreading use of CALL has been seenas an effective way to enhance language learning. Studies seem to show thatCALL aid language teaching and learning in terms of increased motivation,interest and autonomy. The practice of incorporate multi-media and computertechnology into language instruction opens up a new horizon for EFL instructorsto improve the overall quality of language instruction.
In short, the impact of cultural context does not necessarily mean thatTaiwanese foreign language learners will not take on responsibilities for their ownlearning. With the stronger advocacy for quality education in Taiwan, thecomponents of learner autonomy will spread widely in classroom teaching.
2.2 The learner development program by Scharle and Szabo
Scharle and Szabo (2000) choose to integrate responsibilitydevelopment into the regular classroom teaching because they think that students’autonomy developed most when autonomy training are integrated into regularclassroom activities in an informal, natural way. Various classroom activities aredesigned to help learners to realize the importance of their contribution anddevelop their abilities to take charge of their own learning. This is a gradualprocess and consists of mainly three phases: