Glossary
adaptationProcess by which organisms develop physical and behavioral characteristics allowing them to survive and reproduce in their habitats.
aestheticQualities that make objects, actions, or language more beautiful or pleasurable, according to culturally relative and variable standards.
affinesIn-laws, or people related by marriage.
agricultureAdaptation based primarily on the planting, tending, and harvesting of domesticated plants (crops).
ancestral cultsA type of communal cult centered around rituals performed to worship or please a kin group’s
ancestors.
animismBelief in spiritual beings.
anthropological linguisticsSubfield that focuses on the interrelationships between language and other aspects of
a people’s culture.
anthropologyThe study of humankind (Homo sapiens) from a broad perspective, especially focusing on the biological and cultural differences and similarities between populations and societies, of both the past and the present.
applied anthropologySubfield whose practitioners use anthropological methods, theories, and concepts to solve practical real-world problems; practitioners often are employed by a government agency or private organization.
archaeologyThe investigation of past cultures through excavation of material remains.
art Any human action that modifies the utilitarian nature of something for the primary purpose of enhancing its aesthetic pleasure or symbolic communication.
authorityThe recognized right of an individual to command another to act in a particular way; legitimate power.
balanced reciprocityThe exchange of goods considered
to have roughly equal value; social purposes usually motivate the exchange.
bandA small foraging group with flexible composition that migrates seasonally.
big menPolitical leaders who do not occupy formal offices and whose leadership is based on influence, not authority.
bilateral kinshipKinship system in which individuals trace their kinship relations equally through both parents.
bilocal residencePostmarital residence is with either the wife’s or the husband’s parents, according to choice.
body artsArtificial artistic enhancement or beautification of the human body by painting, tattooing, scarification, or other means.
bound morphemeA morpheme attached to a free morpheme to alter its meaning.
brideserviceCustom in which a man spends a period of time working for the family of his wife.
bridewealthCustom in which a prospective groom and his relatives are required to transfer goods to the relatives of the bride to validate the marriage.
casteStratification system in which membership in a stratum is in theory hereditary, strata are endogamous, and contact or relations between members of different strata are governed by explicit laws, norms, or prohibitions.
chiefdomsCentralized political systems with authority vested in formal, usually hereditary, offices or titles; exchange in such systems is often organized by redistribution.
civilizationA form of complex society in which many people live in cities.
clanA named unilineal descent group, some of whose members are unable to trace how they are related, but who still believe themselves to be kinfolk.
classSystem of stratification in which membership in a stratum can theoretically be altered and intermarriage between strata is allowed.
classification of realityWays in which the members of a culture divide up the natural and social world into named categories.
cognatic descentForm of descent in which relationships may be traced through both females and males.
cognatic descent groupA group of relatives created by the tracing of relationships through both females and males.
communal cults Cults in which the members of a group cooperate in the performance of rituals intended to benefit all.
comparative perspectiveThe insistence by anthropologists that valid hypotheses and theories about humanity be tested with data from a wide range of cultures.
composite bandsAutonomous (independent) political units consisting of several extended families that live together for most or all of the year.
consanguines“Blood” relatives, or people related by birth.
consultant (informant)A member of a society who provides information to a fieldworker, often through formal interviews or surveys.
court legal systemsSystems in which authority for settling disputes and punishing crimes is formally vested in a single individual or group.
courts of mediationCourt systems in which sanctions imposed are designed more to restore harmonious relations between parties than to punish.
courts of regulationCourt systems that use codified laws, with formally prescribed rights, duties, and sanctions.
Crow kinship termsAssociated with matrilineal descent; in this system paternal cross cousins are called father or father’s sister, while maternal cross cousins are called son or daughter if ego is a male, and niece or nephew if ego
is a female.
cultOrganized practices and beliefs pertaining to interactions with and control over specific supernatural powers.
cultivationSee agriculture.
cultural anthropology (ethnology)The subfield that studied the way of life of contemporary and historically recent human populations.
cultural construction of genderThe idea that the characteristics a people attribute to males and females is culturally, not biologically, determined.
cultural identityThe cultural tradition a group of people recognize as their own; the shared customs and beliefs that define how a group sees itself as distinctive.
cultural knowledgeInformation, skills, attitudes, conceptions, beliefs, values, and other mental components of culture that people socially learn during enculturation.
cultural relativismThe notion that one should not judge the behavior of other peoples using the standards of one’s own culture.
culture (as used in this text)Shared, socially transmitted knowledge and behavior.
culture shockThe feeling of uncertainty and anxiety an individual experiences when placed in a strange cultural setting.
demographic changeAny change in population, increases and decreases in numbers, as well as shifts in the relative gender, age, and settlement patterns.
descentThe tracing of kinship relationships back to previous generations.
descent groupA group whose members believe themselves to be descended from a common ancestor.
dialectA regional or subcultural variant of languages.
domesticationThe process by which people control the distribution, abundance, and biological features of certain plants and animals, in order to increase their usefulness to humans.
domestic groupIndividuals, usually relatives, who reside together in a single household.
dowryCustom in which the family of a woman transfers property or wealth to her upon her marriage.
ecclesiastical cultsHighly organized cults in which a full-time priesthood performs rituals believed to benefit believers or the whole society; occur in complex societies.
egalitarian societyForm of society in which there is little inequality in access to culturally valued rewards.
enculturation/socializationThe transmission of culture to succeeding generations by means of social learning.
endogamous rulesMarriage rules requiring individuals to marry some member of their own social group or category.
Eskimo kinship termsIn this system mother’s and father’s siblings are called aunt and uncle, while their children are called cousins. English kinship terminology is of the Eskimo type.
ethnic boundary markersAny overt characteristics that can be used to indicate ethnic group membership.
ethnic cleansingThe deliberate and systematic attempt by the dominant ethnic group to eliminate or remove a rival ethnic group or groups from a geographical region.
ethnic groupA named social group based on perceptions of shared ancestry, cultural traditions, and common history that culturally distinguish that group from other groups.
ethnocentrismThe attitude or opinion that the morals, values, and customs of one’s own culture are superior to those of other peoples.
ethnographyA written description of the way of life of some human population.
ethnologyThe study of human cultures from a comparative perspective; often used as a synonym for cultural anthropology.
exchangeTransfer of goods (or rights to goods) between individuals or groups.
exogamous rulesMarriage rules prohibiting individuals to marry a member of their own social group or category.
entended familyA group of related nuclear families.
extended householdA group of related nuclear families that live together in a single household.
fieldworkEthnographic research that involves observing and interviewing the members of a culture to describe their contemporary way of life.
foragingSee hunting and gathering.
forensic anthropologistsPhysical anthropologists who identify and analyze human skeletal remains.
form of descentHow a people trace their descent from previous generations.
free morphemeA morpheme that can be used alone.
functionalismTheoretical orientation that analyzes cultural elements in terms of their useful effects to individuals or to the persistence of the whole society.
gender crossingThe adoption of social roles and behaviors normatively appropriate for the opposite biological sex from one’s own.
gender stratificationThe degree of inequality between males and females based on culturally defined differences between the sexes. May be based on social status (rank, prestige) and/or on access to resources, wealth, power, or influence.
generalized reciprocityThe giving of goods without expectation of a return of equal value at any definite future time.
genocideThe deliberate and systematic attempt to physically destroy an unwanted ethnic population.
global economyA worldwide integrated system of buying and selling of goods, materials, labor, and services in the global market.
grammarTotal system of linguistic knowledge that allows the speakers of a language to send meaningful messages and hearers to understand them.
group marriageSeveral women and several men are married to one another simultaneously.
Hawaiian kinship termsIn this system mother’s and father’s siblings are called mother and father, while their children are called brother and sister.
herdingAdaptation based on control and breeding of domesticated livestock, which are taken to naturally occurring pasturelands.
historical particularismThe theoretical orientation emphasizing that each culture is the unique product of all the influences to which it was subjected in its past, making cross-cultural generalizations questionable.
historic archaeologyField that investigates the past of literate peoples through excavation of sites and analysis of artifacts and other material remains.
holistic perspectiveThe assumption that any aspect of a culture is integrated with other aspects, so that no dimension of culture can be understood in isolation.
homelandA geographical region over which a particular ethnic group feels it has exclusive rights.
horticultureA method of cultivation in which hand tools powered by human muscles are used.
human variationRefers to physical differences between human populations; an interest of physical anthropologists.
hunting and gatheringAdaptation based on harvest of only wild (undomesticated) plants and animals.
idealismA contemporary theoretical orientation holding that cultural knowledge and behavior patterns are largely independent of the material conditions of life; claims that each culture must be analyzed separately, on its own terms, and mistrusts cross-cultural comparisons.
incest tabooProhibition against sexual intercourse between certain kinds of relatives.
indigenous peoplesCulturally distinct peoples who have occupied a region longer than peoples who have colonized or immigrated to the region.
individualistic cultsCults based on personal relations between specific individuals and specific supernatural powers.
inequalityDegree to which individuals, groups, and categories differ in their access to rewards.
influenceThe ability to convince people they should act
as you suggest.
initiation riteA rite held to mark the sexual maturity of
an individual or a group of individuals of the same sex.
intellectual/cognitive functions of religionThe notion that religious beliefs provide explanations for puzzling things and events.
intensive agricultureA system of cultivation in which plots are planted annually or semiannually; usually uses irrigation, natural fertilizers, and (in the Old World) plows powered by animals.
interviewsCollection of cultural data by systematic questioning; may be structured (using questionnaires) or unstructured (open-ended).
Iroquois kinship termsIn this system father’s brother is called father, and mother’s sister is called mother, while their children are called brother and sister. Father’s sister is called aunt and mother’s brother is called uncle, while their children are called cousins.
key consultant (informal)A member of a society who is especially knowledgeable about some subject, and who supplies information to a fieldworker.
kindredAll the bilateral relatives of an individual.
kin groupA group of people who culturally conceive themselves to be relatives, cooperate in certain activities, and share a sense of identity as kinfolk.
kinship terminologyThe way a people classify their relatives into labeled categories, or into “kinds of relatives.”
kin termsThe words (labels) that an individual uses to refer to his or her relatives of various kinds.
lawA kind of social control characterized by the presence of authority, intention of universal application, obligation, and sanction.
levirateCustom whereby a widow marries a male relative (usually a brother) of her deceased husband.
lexiconAll the words that exist in a single language.
limited-purpose moneyMoney that may be used to purchase only a few kinds of goods.
lineageA unilineal descent group larger than an extended family whose members can actually trace how they are related.
marketExchange by means of buying and selling, using money.
marketplaceLocation where buyers and sellers meet for the purpose of acquiring goods and making money.
marriage alliancesThe relationships created between families or kin groups by intermarriage.
materialismThe theoretical orientation holding that the main influence on human ways of life is how people produce and distribute resources from their environment.
matrilineal descentForm of descent in which individuals trace their primary kinship relationships through their mothers.
matrilocal residenceCouple live with or near the wife’s parents.
mechanized agricultureCultivation system in which machinery powered by oil, gasoline, electricity, and other inanimate energy sources provides the major energy inputs to farms.
monogamyEach individual is allowed to have only one spouse at a time.
morphemeA combination of phonemes that conveys a standardized meaning.
morphologyThe study of the units of meaning in language.
multiple gender identitiesThe recognition, present in some cultures, of more than two sexes, with the third and fourth identities often called by terms such as man-woman and woman-man.
multipurpose moneyA money that can be used to purchase a very broad range of goods and services.
nationalityAn ethnic group that claims a right to a
discrete homeland and to political autonomy and self-determination.
negative reciprocityExchange motivated by the desire to obtain goods, in which the parties try to gain all the material goods they can.
neolocal residenceCouples establish a separate household apart from both the husband’s and wife’s parents.
nomadismSeasonal mobility, often involving migration
to high-altitude areas during the hottest and driest parts
of the year.
normShared ideas and/or expectations about how certain people ought to act in given situations.
nuclear familyA family unit consisting of only parents and children.
Omaha kinship termsAssociated with patrilineal descent; in this system matrilineal cross cousins are called mother and mother’s brother, while patrilineal cross cousins are called son and daughter if ego is a female and niece and nephew if ego is a male.
origin mythThe collective history of an ethnic group that defines which subgroups are part of it and its relationship to other ethnic groups.
paleoanthropologistsPhysical anthropologists who specialize in the investigation of the biological evolution of the human species.
participant observationThe main technique used in conducting ethnographic fieldwork, involving living among a people and participating in their daily activities.
pastoralismSee herding.
patrilineal descentForm of descent in which individuals trace their most important kinship relationships through their fathers.
patrilocal residenceCouples live with or near the husband’s parents.
patterns of behaviorThe behavior that most people perform when they are in certain culturally defined situations.
peasantsRural people who are integrated into a larger society politically and economically.
performance arts Forms of art such as music, percussion, song, dance, and theater/drama that involve sound and/or stylized body movements.
phoneme The smallest unit of sound that speakers unconsciously recognize as distinctive from other sounds; when one phoneme is substituted for another in a morpheme,
the meaning of the morpheme alters.
phonology The study of the sound system of language.
physical (biological) anthropologyThe subfield that studies the biological aspects of humankind.
polyandryOne woman is allowed to have multiple husbands.
polygamyMultiple spouses.
polygynyOne man is allowed to have multiple wives.
postmarital residence patternWhere a newly married couple go to live after their marriage.
prehistoric archaeologyField that uses excavation of sites and analysis of material remains to investigate cultures that existed before the development of writing.
priestA kind of religious specialist, often full-time, who officiates at rituals.
primatologistsThose who study primates, including monkeys and apes.
prophetA person who claims to have dreams or visions
in which he or she received a message from a supernatural power.
psychological functions of religionThe emotional satisfaction people derive from religion.
puberty(initiation)A religious ceremony that symbolically transforms the individual from a child to an adult.
ranked societySociety in which there are a fixed number of statuses (e.g., titles, offices) that carry prestige, and only certain individuals are eligible to attain these statuses.
reciprocityThe transfer of goods for goods between two or more individuals or groups.
redistributionThe collection of goods or money from a group, followed by a reallocation to the group by a central authority.
relocationThe forced resettlement of an unwanted ethnic group to a new geographical location.
rite of passageA public ceremony or ritual recognizing and marking a transition from one group or status to another.
ritualOrganized and stereotyped symbolic behaviors intended to influence supernatural powers.
roleA social position in a group, with its associated and reciprocal rights (privileges) and duties (obligations).
self-help legal systemsInformal legal systems in societies without centralized political systems, in which authorities who settle disputes are defined by circumstances of the case.
semantic domainA class of things or properties that are perceived as alike in some fundamental respect; hierarchically organized.
sexual division of laborThe kinds of productive activities (tasks) that are assigned to women versus men in a culture.