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Water Services Trust Fund GIZ
Defining WSP Service Area and Descriptions of Low-Income Areas
Table of Contents
1 Defining Low Income Areas: an Introduction 2
2 Characteristics of Urban Low Income Areas 2
3 Description of Various Types of Urban Low Income Areas 5
3.1 Informal Settlements 6
3.2 Planned Areas with (Planned) Low Income Housing 7
3.3 Informal Housing in Planned Residential Areas 8
3.4 Urban Sub-Centres 9
3.5 Large Rural Centres with Urban Characteristics and Low Income Housing 10
3.6 Urban IDP Camps/Settlements 10
3.7 Peri-Urban Areas 10
4 Water supply in Low-Income Urban Areas 11
5 Posters of Low Income Urban Areas 12
Water Services Trust Fund GIZ
Defining WSP Service Area and Descriptions of Low-Income Areas
1 Defining Low Income Areas: an Introduction
Kenya’s cities and towns are complex socio-economic and cultural entities characterised by a marked patterns of economic differentiation. In some cities and towns, low-income areas can be easily identified and have clear borders. Kibera and Mathare in Nairobi are clear examples of large well delineated informal settlements. In other towns, however, the urban poor reside in small formal estates or in rented accommodation which are surrounded by commercial plots or by high incomes housing.
2 Characteristics of Urban Low Income Areas
Many urban low income areas share the following characteristics:
Water supply and sanitation:
· Areas lack or have limited access to basic services such as safe water, and sanitation.
· The existing infrastructure is usually in poor technical condition, not user-friendly and poorly managed.
· Where WSS services are available they are usually shared. Residents use community stand pipes and shared ablution blocks.
· Residents rely on informal water and sanitation service providers (water resellers, )
· The price residents have to pay for water is not regulated.
· The quality of water fetched from sources within the area (boreholes, protected open wells, etc.) is poor.
· Lack of space (due to poor planning and high population densities) needed for the provision of basic infrastructure/services such as roads, safe water, adequate sanitation, drainage and solid waste management.
Population, layout and infrastructure:
· High population densities.
· Many low income areas have not been constructed according to a proper layout plan.
· Plots usually accommodate more than one household (in some informal urban areas a single plot can accommodate up to 35 households).
· Most low income areas are located on marginalised land (areas with a high water table or situated on top of hills, etc.).
· Most low income areas have poor infrastructure (roads, drainage) and services (solid waste collection).
Land ownership:
· Many residents lack security of tenure.
· The areas are either planned or unplanned. Planned (formal) low income areas are mostly found on Government or County land.
· Many residents are renting their accommodation.
· Many tenants live in flats which they share with other tenants. Quite often the landlord also resides on the plot.
· Landowners often lack the financial resources to construct proper houses and to invest in proper water supply and sanitation.
· Land is object of speculation of power-brokers, who are not really interested in developing it.
· Obtaining land for the construction of WSS infrastructure (such as water kiosks and public sanitation facilities) is usually a challenge.
· Most of these settlements are on marginalized land (flood prone, mountains etc)
· Land tenure patterns in urban low income areas differ from region to region:
· Communal land in North Eastern Kenya.
· Private land in Western Kenya (for example, Kisumu).
· Council and Government land in Nairobi.
Type of housing:
· Housing in informal settlements, can be either permanent or temporal. The quality of housing often depends on the land tenure. Residents who own the land they occupy tend to put up permanent structures whilst residents who do not own the land tend to put up temporal structures. For example in Kisumu, a large proportion of residents living in low income areas have title deeds which explains why these areas tend to have a mixture of permanent and temporary houses. Low income areas in Kisumu are either found on privately owned land, Trust Land, or on land owned by the Council. In rural towns some settlements are located on Trust land but further investigations often reveal that titles to the land (trust land) have been issued to other people without the knowledge of the current occupants.
Socio-economic situation:
· Most residents (but not all residents) have low income levels.
· Unemployment levels, and youth unemployment levels in particular, are high.
· Many residents are active in the informal sector of the local economy and derive an income from small-scale businesses, trade and casual labour (piece work).
· Residents in formal employment are mainly Government or Council employees, shop attendants, security guards, drivers, (etc.) with low incomes.
· Residents lack information on many issues and as a result many do not know their rights.
· Mixed social economic make-up of the areas (the majority of the residents are renting the houses they live in, others are owned and are Landlords, high unemployment levels, the well-to-do businessmen etc.).
Community characteristics:
· Low income areas often lack social cohesion. This can often be attributed to the mobility of their residents. In informal settlements social cohesion tends to be higher than in planned low income settlements.
· Community participation in low income areas is often lacking.
· Strong presence, in some urban low income areas of civil society organizations and registered groups.
Policy and development interventions:
· Policy negligence. Governments tend to ignore urban low income areas when preparing the national budget.
· Residents are often not consulted during the preparation of development interventions or the choice of technologies that aim to improve the living conditions in urban low-income areas.
· Wrong technologies or poor designs are often adopted to improve infrastructure in low income settlements. Adapted technologies and the preferences and priorities of residents are often not considered.[1]
· The authorities should also develop master plans and coordinate developments.
· Land owners are not involved in the planning and implementation of projects which require land and aim to improve the welfare of the residents. This means that beneficiaries should be ready to offer land and legal documents signed between the stakeholders.
· Development interventions tend to focus upon providing infrastructure instead of investing in people and improving capacities.
Public health:
· The public health situation in many urban low income areas is poor. This can be attributed to:
o High population densities.
o Lack of safe water, adequate sanitation, drainage and waste collection systems.
o Poor hygienic practices of residents.
o Absence of community health education and sensitization programmes.
o Lack of health facilities (clinics, hospitals, etc.).
3 Description of Various Types of Urban Low Income Areas
This paragraph contains descriptions of the various types of urban low income areas found in Kenya. These areas share many of the characteristics presented in the previous sections. These descriptions are based upon discussions with stakeholders and field visits.
Most urban low income areas are included in the online pro-poor database of the WSTF; MajiData (www.majidata.go.ke ).
Many urban low income areas are suitable for the introduction and sustainable operation of urban pro-poor water supply solutions, such as water kiosks, prepaid yard taps and improved public- and plot level sanitation facilities.
The following low income urban areas are described in more detail:
1. Informal settlements with informal housing.
2. Planned areas with formal low income housing.
3. Planned areas with informal housing.
4. Semi urban sub-centres.
5. (Semi-permanent) refugee camps.
6. Large rural centres.
A description of peri-urban areas has been included to show that these areas are not suitable for urban WSS solutions.
Table 1 contains the descriptions of the types of low income urban areas. Posters of a number of types of low income areas are presented in Chapter 5.
Table 1: Urban WSTF-funded projects should target the low income urban areas
Area / Housing / Formal housing / Informal housingPlanned urban area / · Planned low income areas with formal low income housing (Council estates, etc.)
· Pockets (plots or compounds) of low income formal housing found within residential or commercial areas
· Planned semi-urban sub-centres with formal low income housing
· Planned large rural centres with urban characteristics and formal low income housing / · Planned low income areas with informal housing
· Pockets (plots or compounds) of low income informal housing found within residential or commercial areas
· Planned semi-urban sub-centres with informal low income housing
· Planned large rural centres with urban characteristics and informal low income housing
Unplanned urban area / · Formal low income housing in unplanned urban areas / · Informal urban settlements with informal housing
· (Semi-permanent) urban refugee camps
3.1 Informal Settlements
Informal settlements are often referred to as “slums” or “urban slums”. Their residents are called “slum dwellers” or “squatters”. Residents often depend on a small number of house/yard connections, springs and wells. Households residing on the same plot share pit latrines and in slums (such as Kibera in Nairobi) residents resort to flying toilets.
Most slums are un-planned, often illegal, urban settlements with high population densities, poor service levels, and low incomes associated with lack of social cohesion.
The land occupied by the residents of these slums is owned by the County, the Government or by private individuals. In some cases, the land was allocated to the squatters. For example, in Kipsonge area in Kitale, squatters have occupied the land for a number of decades. Most houses in slum areas are constructed with what might be labelled as temporary materials. Substandard housing in slum areas is considered to be the result of high poverty levels and/or insecurity of tenure.
The water supply and sanitation situation in most slums is poor. As far as water supply is concerned, residents often depend on a small number of house/yard connections, springs and wells. Households residing on the same plot share pit latrines and in slums (such as Kibera in Nairobi) residents resort to flying toilets.
Not surprisingly residents and local health experts mention the high incidence of water-related diseases such as typhoid.
Discussions with slum residents indicate that few households are able and willing to invest in house or yard connections. Most households are poor and simply lack the financial resources to invest in a house connection and to pay the monthly water bill. Others, who can afford, are not willing to invest in a house connection because of the insecurity of tenure.
It is important to note that even in the informal settlements many residents are renting their accommodation. It is common practice that the landlord or landlady resides in a flat within the same compound.
Water kiosks are the most feasible and sustainable solution for these informal settlements.
3.2 Planned Areas with (Planned) Low Income Housing
Planned low income housing areas or estates with high population densities, dilapidated water supply and sanitation systems (e.g. Council and Government housing estates).
In many cities and towns there are formal (planned) low-cost housing estates which are owned by the County or by other (parastal) organisations.[2] The tenants occupying the flats (one estate may have up to 35 flats), either do not pay rent or the rent is deducted from the breadwinner’s salary (in case he or she works for the County). Income levels of most families are very low.
In the past some of the estates were supplied through water kiosks, but in most cases these kiosks were disconnected a number of years ago and the residents were told to apply for house or yard connections. This did not happen as residents (who seemed to be aware of the costs involved of acquiring a connection) lack the financial resources to pay for a connection and in most cases even lack the finances needed to pay the monthly water bill.
In Kitale and Naivasha many residents of such estates have to walk relatively long distances and fetch water at a relatively high price (KSh 3.00/20-litre container). [3]
Improving water supply only would leave the problem of the dilapidated ablution blocks unaddressed. In many estates these ablution blocks are equipped with flush toilets connected to the sewer. In many cases these toilets are still being used (the sewer still flows) and the water for flushing is fetched from nearby springs or taps. In the rainy season rainwater is used for the same purpose.
3.3 Informal Housing in Planned Residential Areas
Informal housing in planned urban areas where plot owners have title deeds. Sometimes the plots with informal housing constitute small pockets which are surrounded by well constructed homes or commercial properties.
In many cities and towns, low-income informal housing can be found in planned areas where individuals or organisations hold title deeds to the land or where land is owned by the Government. Officially land has to be developed in accordance with the plans and by-laws of the County. As the enforcement of these by-laws is often lacking,[4] many landlords have taken the opportunity to ignore existing housing guidelines and standards and to develop cheap sub-standard housing for families with low incomes. In most cases landlords have invested in compounds that consist of flats which are rented out. Many houses are made of clay and other temporary building materials.[5]
Sub-standard/informal housing is found in almost all sections of the 3 western towns. Most flats are occupied by low-income households.[6]
According to the Town Clerk of Webuye, the non-enforcement of by-laws and building requirements and regulations explains why in Webuye proper housing structures (homes, flats, etc.) are often surrounded by sub-standard housing and why small-scale industries are found in residential areas. In other words, there often exists a discrepancy between the existing development plans and what can be found “on the ground”.[7] In these areas the pattern of social and economic differentiation is marked: Poor households live amidst wealthier residents. This also means that in the 3 western towns poverty is not confined to specific areas.