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DSC4012 – Terrorism
Terrorism and the Media
Chapter 4
Learning Objectives: Chapter 4
¡ Discuss the role of the media in constructing social reality.
¡ Explain the tension between security forces and the media.
¡ Describe how the media can be viewed as a weapon.
¡ Explain how news frames are used present a story.
¡ Describe the special relationship between terrorism and television.
Learning Objectives: Chapter 4
¡ Explain how the Internet has impacted terrorism.
¡ Summarize various positions about bias in the news media.
¡ Define the contagion effect.
¡ Debate the issues of freedom of the press and censorship.
¡ Both security forces and terrorists want their version of the story published.
¡ Each side wants to control the media environment for one simple reason
§ THE VARIOUS MEDIA ARE NOT AND ACANNOT BE NEUTRAL; THEY ARE A WEAPON
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF IMAGES
¡ Meanings are socially constructed.
§ Reporting is part of the social construction of terrorism.
§ Terrorists are aware of the power of the media and seek to manipulate their message through it.
§ While the media enhances the power of terrorism, it does not cause it.
¡ Terrorism involves symbolic communication:
§ It is aimed at an audience well beyond the immediate victims of violence.
§ It is designed to communicate specific messages to a select audience (Jongman).
§ It is an effective communication device that governments respond by trying to send their own messages through the media (Snow).
Passing of Stories
¡ This is the way human beings share stories; it is not merely the product of entertaining fiction.
¡ Consider the following videos.
Passing of Stories
¡ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gcdnf0Ckxmc&feature=related
¡ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3X_KyqGf3w
§ United 93 (2006) hijacking ending scene
¡ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bA_2teLmm1Q&feature=player_embedded
§ World Trade Center (Movie) - WTC collapse
Media Misconceptions
¡ Media’s presentation of terrorism is dominated by several simplified stories, presented on 24 hour cable news networks
¡ Media exaggerates the threat of WMD
¡ Media uses simple catchphrases to popularize a point
§ “Broken borders”
§ “War on terrorism”
¡ Some analysts of the media suggest that their reporting is sympathetic to governmental positions.
¡ American media has been criticized for writing reports favorable to security forces.
Media and Security Forces
¡ Media social constructions often run counter to governmental objectives and policies
¡ Police and military perceive themselves to be the forceful extension of democracy
§ They think reporters are only trying to gather sensationalistic stories
¡ Embedded reporters
§ 2003 invasion of Iraq, Pentagon invited journalists to join combat units
§ The results were partially realized
§ (After editing reports did not show more favorable general coverage.)
2003 INVASION OF IRAQ
¡ “The media is similar to a loaded gun lying in the street, the first person to pick it up gets to choose how to use it.”—Richard Clutterbuck
Media as a Weapon
¡ Terrorists recognize the power of the media as a weapon
§ Ayman al Zawahiri
§ Says any attack, especially if sensational, can dramatize the struggle.
§ He can turn to his own media relations group.
§ Uses his own writing to justify terrorism.
¡ Jihadists are keenly aware of the media’s ability to influence the social construction of reality
§ They seek legitimacy for their movement
§ They want to spread their message and increase sympathy for their militant interpretation of religion
§ Their opponents are targeted for intimidation
News Frames
¡ Reporting patterns are packaged in segments called news frames
§ Purpose is to assemble words and pictures to create a pattern surrounding an event
§ Creates a narrative for a deadly drama
§ Characters are introduced, heroes and villains are defined, and victims become the suffering innocents
News Frames
¡ News frames help “mediatize” the presentation of terrorism
§ Media shapes the way an event is communicated
¡ News frame is one of the least understood aspects of broadcast journalism because its complexity goes unnoticed
¡ Reporting Frame
§ A quick, fact-driven report that summarizes the latest information about a story.
Types of Frames
¡ Reporting frame
¡ Dominant frame
¡ Conflict frame
¡ Contention frame
¡ Investigative frame
¡ Mythic frame
¡ Campaigning frame
Ø Superficial, short, and laced with facts
Ø One authority’s view
Ø Two sides, with experts
Ø A variety of positions
Ø Exposing corrupt, illegal behavior
Ø Hero stories
Ø Broadcaster’s opinion
Types of Frames
¡ Reportage frame
¡ Community service frame
¡ Collective interest frame
¡ Cultural recognition frames
¡ Mythic tales frames
Ø In-depth coverage with background
Ø Information for viewers
Ø Reinforce common values
Ø Group’s values and norms
Ø Hero stories
Beating the War Drum
¡ American television presented only one news frame after 9/11 (dominant frame)
§ Douglas Kellner:
§ Patterning the attack as a clash of civilizations
§ Suggesting that only a military response would stop future attacks
¡ Television called in a variety of terrorism experts who reflected the single view
¡ Radio was even worse, engaging in sensationalistic propaganda
Do you agree with this perspective?
Beating the Wrong Drum
¡ Some critics believe the media’s focus is improperly centered on military and law enforcement action overseas
¡ Media has virtually ignored domestic security issues
¡ Nacos’s study after 9-11
§ American news media did not believe there was a need to focus on domestic security
§ Televisions’ preference for sensational events
Infotainment Telesector
¡ Barber calls the twenty-four-hour news networks the “infotainment telesector”
§ Media flourishes on one overriding factor: entertainment
¡ The infotainment telesector is not geared for depth; it is designed to create revenue
¡ Negative effect on homeland security
Television Drama
¡ Control of the drama pattern was held in a Western monopoly until recently
§ Al Manar television presented a sympathetic view of the al Asqa uprising
¡ Television makes the viewing audience participants in a terrorist attack
¡ Television seeks drama, and terrorism provides an unfolding dramatic event
Gender Stereotypes
¡ Television tends to portray women as minor figures in the male-dominated occupation
¡ Nacos presents several images created by television news frames:
§ Physical appearance frame
§ Family connection frame
§ Terrorist for the sake of love
§ Women's lib frame
§ Women as bored, frustrated housewives
§ These gender-biased reports weaken our ability to respond to terrorism
Media Ownership
¡ Edward Herman (1999) focuses on the social construction of reality and political bias
§ American media is part of a vast propaganda machine promoting values and goals of corporations
¡ David Baron (2004) takes a different approach, suggesting that bias appears on two levels
§ Individual discretion of the reporter
§ Public’s desire for the most captivating story
Stereotypes
¡ Critics suggest that large groups of people are portrayed without depth in American television
¡ Critics believe the media is spreading incorrect information about terrorists
¡ Richard Miniter (2005) identifies 22 misconceptions about terrorism accepted as truth by most newspapers, magazines, and broadcasters
Internet and Terrorism
¡ Steganography
§ Embedding hidden information in a picture, message, or another piece of information
§ Message can be encrypted, placed in plain text in a hidden file, or sent on a covert channel
¡ Terrorist groups use media to present messages and portray images that will not appear in mainstream media.
¡ Recruiting and Training
§ Salafi-jihadists using Web sites and e-mail to make training manuals available
¡ Salafi Movement
§ Orthodox Sunni Muslims who impose Islam with force and violence.
§ Use Internet sites to provide in-depth theological apologias to justify religious violence.
As Sahaab versus al Hurra
¡ Al Qaeda’s underground video network, known as As Sahaab, wages an effective propaganda campaign using the Internet
¡ In response, the US launched al Hurra, an Arabic-language 24 hour satellite station
§ Results have been disappointing
§ United States has yet to capitalize on the Internet for spreading propaganda
Media Ownership
¡ Tim Groseclose and Jeffrey Milyo (2005) stated that the American media has a liberal bias
¡ Fouzi Slisli (2000) says that the American media is full of oversimplifications and stereotypes
¡ Baron (2004) says news companies keep major biases out of stories to avoid risk of lower profits
MINITER’S MEDIA MYTHS
¡ Miniter believes that all media serve as a source of disinformation
¡ The primary reasons are sloppy reporting, editors who fail to check facts, and rumors that are accepted as truth
¡ Many of these media-based “truths” cannot stand the test of investigation
The Contagion Effect
¡ Some analysts wonder if media coverage inspires more terrorism
¡ Many researcher believe that the fear generated by media reporting is contagious
§ Anthrax attack
§ Madrid commuter train bombing
§ The evidence of a relationship between behavior and media violence is not conclusive.
Censorship
¡ Paul Wilkinson (1997) believes that governments face three choices when it comes to maintaining freedom of the press and combating terrorism:
§ Laissez-faire attitude
§ Censorship
§ Media self regulation
Censorship Debate
¡ Democracy is threatened when the government openly censors information
§ Censorship could do more to damage freedom than the terrorist attacks themselves
¡ Others believe that in times of emergency, information must be controlled to ensure the survival of the state
§ America was fighting a new type of war and some form of censorship was required
§ The foundation of Western democracy is based on free speech and communication.
Chapter Take Aways
¡ Television and other media shape the way we view terrorism.
¡ This creates quite a bit of controversy about the role of the media in reporting terrorism, and it frequently pits reporters against security forces.
¡ All sides try to manipulate the media because of its extensive power.
Chapter Take Aways
¡ This means that there is extensive competition for presenting a point of view and a news frame, and it leads to charges of biases from all sides.
¡ This is especially true in television because terrorism is a made-for-television drama.
¡ Some scholars have called for limited censorship because the media is so powerful.