A.P. United States Government
Review Topic #1 – Constitutional Underpinnings
Sources: Roche and Beard, Federalist #51
I. Articles of Confederation
A. Shay’s Rebellion
II. Constitutional Convention
A. Historical Aspects
B. Compromises
1. Connecticut/Great Compromise
2. 3/5 Compromise
3. Electoral College
C. Individual Rights in the Constitution
D. Checks and Balances/Separation of Powers
1. Executive
2. Legislative
3. Judicial
E. Amendment Process
F. Ratification
1. Federalists/ Federalist #10
2. Anti-federalists
G. Bill of Rights
H. Later Interpretations (Roche v. Beard)
Potential Free Response Topics
Formal and informal amendments
Whether founding fathers were democratic
Expansion of voting rights
Weaknesses in Articles of Confederation/How Constitution fixed them
Review Topic #2 – Federalism
Source:
I. Defining federalism
II. Advantages of a federal system
III. Powers of Government
A. State
B. Federal
C. Concurrent
III. Federalism and the Constitution
A. Supremacy Clause
B. 10th Amendment
C. McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) and U.S. v. Lopez (1993)
D. Elastic Clause
E. Full Faith and Credit Clause
F. Extradition
G. Privileges and Immunities Clause
IV. Intergovernmental Relations Today
A. Dual Federalism
B. Cooperative Federalism
C. Fiscal Federalism
1. Cross over Sanctions
2. Cross cutting requirements
3. Categorical grants
4. Block grants
5. Revenue sharing
Potential Free Response Topics
Ongoing tension between state and federal government
Unfunded mandates
Advantages and disadvantages of federalism for democracy
Review Topic #3 – Political Beliefs and Behaviors and Elections
Sources:
I. Theories of Government
A. Pluralism
B. Elitism
I. Political Socialization
A. Family—most important
B. Mass media
C. School
II. American Political Culture
A. Equality
1. Legal
2. Political
3. NOT economic equality
B. Rights
1. Freedom of speech (support the concept, but intolerance in practice)
2. Freedom of religion
III. The Politics of Voting
A. Voter Turnout
1. Comparison to other countries
1. No mandatory voting
2. Voter registration/Motor Voter Act of 1993
2. Decline in voter turnout (less than half in most elections)
1. Larger electorate
2. Less party mobilization
3. More mobile population
4. Increase in minority groups and youth
5. Dealignment
6. Declining trust in government
7. Don’t see a difference between parties
8. NOT apathy/cynicism/loss of efficacy
3. Who votes
1. Age
2. Education
3. Region
4. Income
4. How people vote (liberal or conservative)
1. Age
2. Education
3. Region
4. Income
5. Race
6. Gender Gap
7. Role of party identification
8. Increase in independent voters
V. Types of Political Participation
A. Voting—most common political activity
B. Other forms of participation
1. Litigation
2. Protest
3. Contact Public officials
4. Contact the media
5. Work on campaigns
6. Work on voter registration drives
7. Contribute money to campaigns
8. Run for office
9. Hold office
10. Discuss issues to persuade others
11. Join an overtly political organization
12. thinking about issues
13. NOT violence
VI. Decline of Trust and Confidence in Government
A. Less trust since 1950s
B. Divided Government
1. More partisanship
2. Decline of the middle
3. Frustration with the process
4. Slows the confirmation process
5. Creates gridlock
C. Role of Money in Politics
1. Candidates spend too much time raising money
2. Role of interest groups
3. Connections to wealthy donors (Abramoff)
4. Keeps good people from running
5. Small contributions don’t matter
6. Perception of wasteful spending
D. Consequences of the Decline of Trust
1. More protest
2. Decline in voting
3. Increase in independent and third party identification
4. Non-partisan community action
5. Apathy DOES NOT count.
VII. Nominations and Campaigns
A. Primaries
1. Used more often than state conventions
2. Weaken party control
3. Increase the number of people involved in choosing candidates
4. Primary voters are more educated and affluent.
5. Closed (voters must declare a party before the election) v. Open
B. Nominations
1. McGovern Fraser Commission 1968—Democrats increase the number of females and minority delegates at the convention
2. Delegates to conventions are more educated and more likely to participate in politics
VIII. Elections
A. How votes are counted
1. Electoral College means candidates campaign in competitive states with large populations.
2. Elections are FPTP/SMD
3. Candidate with plurality wins
4. Winner-take-all
5. Fosters two main parties
6. Incumbents usually win (incumbency advantage is greater in the House)
B. Congressional Districts
1. Boundaries are drawn by state legislatures.
2. Gerrymandering is drawing a district to favor one party (or race).
3. In districts with a large number of non-English speakers, voting materials must be provided in native language.
C. Critical Elections
1. Result in realignment
2. This means new coalitions of voters support each party.
IX. Money and Campaigning
A. Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974
1. Creates the FEC
2. Requires disclosure
3. Matching funds for presidential campaigns
4. Limits hard money to $1000 for individuals
5. BUT there was a “soft money loophole”
B. Buckley v. Valeo (1976)
1. Contributing to your own campaign is free speech
2. Allows the rich to have more influence
3. Spending money independent of a campaign (527) is free speech
4. This is an obstacle to reform—an amendment would be required to fix this.
C. McCain-Feingold (2002)
1. Eliminates soft money
a. This levels the playing field
b. This lessons concerns about buying influence
c. More disclosure and transparency
d. Might decrease the cost of campaigning
2. Limits on hard money ($2000 individual, $5000 PACS)
a. Not indexed to inflation
b. Candidates might spend less time fundraising
c. Might decrease the influence of PACs
3. The rise of 527s
a. Ads are run independent of a candidate
b. This circumvents the ban on soft money
c. Gives the rich more influence
Possible Free Response Topics
Types of participation other than voting
Who votes/doesn’t vote and why
Campaign finance reform
Reasons for low voter turnout
Review Topic #4 – Linkage Institutions: Political Parties, Interest Groups and Mass Media
Sources: Federalist #10, First Amendment
I. Development of the media and politics
A. First Amendment
B. Press conferences
C. Investigative Journalism/Scandals/Watergate
D. Print media
1. Beats
E. Broadcast media
1. Sound bites
F. Bias
II. Public Opinion and the Media
A. Agenda setting
B. Media events
III. What parties do
A. Three-headed political giant
1. Party and the electorate
a. Party identification
b. Ticket-splitting
2. Party as an organization
a. patronage
b. party machines
c. Pendleton Civil Service Act of 1883
d. Hatch Act of 1939
3. Party in Government
IV. Party eras in American History
A. First Party System: 1796-1824
B. Democrats-Whigs: 1828-1856
C. The Two Republic Eras: 1860-1928
D. The New Deal Coalition: 1932-1964
E. Era of Divided Government: 1968-2002
F. Critical Elections
G. Realignment
V. Third Parties
A. Three Types
1. Splinter
2. Specific causes
3. Charismatic individual
B. Advantages/Disadvantages
VI. Definition of interest groups and how they work
VII. Three Contemporary theories of democracy
A. Pluralism
B. Elitism
C. Hyperpluralism
VIII. Factors in the success of Interest Groups
A. Size/Olson’s Law of Large Groups
B. Intensity/Single-Issue groups
C. Financial Resources
IX. Shaping policy
A. Lobbying
B. Electioneering/PACs
C. Litigation
1. amicus curiae briefs
2. class action lawsuits
D. Mobilizing public opinion
X. Types of interest groups
A. Economic
1. Labor
a. AFL-CIO
b. Wagner Act of 1935
2. Business
a. National Association of Manufacturers
b. Taft-Hartley Act of 1947
B. Environmental
C. Equality
D. Consumers’/Public interests
Possible Free Response Topics
Bias in the media
Presidential uses of the media
Impact of the media on policy agenda and presidential approval
Impact of third parties on elections
Increase in independent voting
Third party impact on policy agenda
The impact of interest groups on democracy/government
How particular interest groups pursue their goals
Review Topic #5 – Congress
Sources:
I. Congressional Demographics
II. Elections
A. Incumbency
B. Advertising
C. Credit claiming
1. Casework
2. Pork
D. Position taking
E. Party identification
F. Franking privileges
III. Bicameralism
A. The House
1. Congressional districts
2. Special powers
B. The Senate
1. Filibuster/cloture
2. Special powers
IV. Congressional Leadership Positions
A. Speaker of the House
B. President of the Senate
C. Majority Leader
D. Minority Leader
E. Whips
V. Types of leadership
A. Descriptive
B. Substantive
C. Trustee
D. Instructed delegate
E. politico
VI. Committees/Subcommittees
A. Appointment of committee heads/membership on committees
1. Seniority
B. Agenda setting
C. Log rolling
D. Four types of committees
1. Standing
2. Joint
3. Select
4. Conference
E. Legislative oversight of bureaucracy
VII. How a Bill becomes a Law
A. Omnibus legislation
B. Christmas tree bill
VII, Important committees to know
A. House Rules
B. House Ways and Means
C. Senate Finance
D. Appropriations
Possible Free Response Topics
Congressional reapportionment
Divided government
Advantages/disadvantages of committees/subcommittees
Congressional leadership
Advantages of incumbency
Review Topic #6 – The Presidency
Sources: Barber article in Woll
I. Presidential Demographics
A. Constitutional requirements
B. Informal requirements
C. Impeachment
D. U.S. v. Nixon (1974)
II. Presidential Powers
A. National security
B. Legislative
C. Administrative
D. Judicial
III. Vice-President and Cabinet
IV. Executive Office
A. National Security Council
B. Council of Economic Advisors
C. Office of Management and Budget
D. White House Staff
1. Wheel and spokes
2. Hierarchical
V. President as Legislator
A. Mandate theory of elections
B. Chief legislator
1.Sign a bill
2.Veto (no line item veto Clinton v. New York (1998))
3.Pocket-veto
4.Becomes a law without signature
C. Executive order
VIII. Party and public support
A. Approval ratings
1. Honeymoon period
2. Crisis
3. Rally events
4. Economy
B. State of the Union Address
C. Special session of Congress
D. Lame duck
IX. National Security Policy
A. Treaties
B. Executive Agreement
C. War Powers Act of 1973
Possible Free Response Topics
Effect of divided government
Organization of White House staff
Expansion of foreign policy powers
Impeachment process
Presidential relationship with congress/courts
Effect of opinion polls on the presidency
Review Topic #7 – The Bureaucracy and the Budget
Sources:
I. Bureaucratic Demographics
A. Civil service system
1. General schedule (GS)
B. The Plum Book
II. How bureaucracies are organized
A. Cabinet departments
B. Regulatory agencies
C. Government corporations
D. Independent executive agencies
III. Implementation
A. Standard operating procedures (SOPs)
B. Street-level bureaucrat
C. Slippage
IV. Iron triangles/issue networks
V. Regulation
A. Command and control v. incentive systems
VI. Criticisms
A. Red tape
B. Conflict among agencies
C. Duplication
D. Imperialism
E. Waste
VII, Control of the bureaucracy
A. The President
1. appointments
2. executive order
3. tinker with budget
4. reorganize/eliminate
B. Congress
1. influence appointments
2. budget
3. legislative oversight
4. rewrite legislation to make it more detailed
Possible Free Response Topics
Iron triangles
Presidential/congressional interaction
Impact on scope of government
Review Topic #8 – The Budget
Sources:
1) Sources of Revenue
a) Income taxes
b) Social insurance taxes
c) Borrowing
d) Excise taxes
2) Taxes and Public policy
a) Tax loophole/deductions
b) Tax expenditures
c) Progressive, regressive and proportional taxes
d) Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974
e) Government shut down in 1995
f) Tax Reform Act of 1986
g) Bush Tax Cut of 2001
3) Federal Expenditures
a) National security
b) Social services
c) Uncontrollable Expenditures
d) Incrementalism v. zero-based budgeting
4) Federal Debt
a) Deficit v. debt
b) Balanced Budget Amendment/Graham-Rudman-Hollings
5) Budgetary Process
a) Office Of Management and Budget
b) House Ways and Means Committee/Senate Finance Committee
c) Congressional Budget Office
d) Budget Resolution
e) Appropriations Committee
f) Continuing Resolution
g) Reconciliation
h) Authorization Bill
Possible Free Response Topics
Difficulties in controlling expenditures
Increasing government debt
Revision of entitlement programs
Review Topic #9 – The Courts
Sources:
I. The Supreme Court
A. Caseload is mostly appellate
B. Chooses its own cases
1. Writ of Certiorari
2. Four justices must agree
C. Avoids political questions/War Powers Resolution
II. Politics of judicial selection
A. Appointment and confirmation
1. Presidents appoint those with similar views
2. Prior political experience/service to party
3. Factors considered include gender, race, ideology, relation, judicial experience, former prosecutor, education, reputation, litmus test?
B. Senatorial courtesy
C. Influence of interest groups on confirmation
1. advertisements
2. campaign contributions to senators
3. op/ed pieces
4. press conferences
5. protests/demonstrations
6. talk shows
7. testify at confirmation hearings
8. writing to interest group members
9.
6) The Courts and Public Opinion
A. Insulation from public opinion
a. appointed, not elected
b. appointed for life
c. serve during good behavior
d. not up for reelection
e. deliberations are held in secret
f. salaries cannot be reduced
B. Influence of public opinion
a. Congress can change the number of judges/court’s jurisdiction/create new courts
b. Presidents appoint them/reflect pubic opinion
c. Senators confirm/reflects public opinion through election
d. Court cares about its reputation
e. Individual judges care about their reputations
f. Other branches can refuse to enforce rulings/reduces court’s authority
III. Interest Groups and the Courts
A. Ways interest groups try to influence the courts
a. Influence the appointment process (see above
b. amicus curiae briefs
c. litigation—bringing a lawsuit
B. When interest groups will go to the courts (perhaps instead of other branches)
a. lack of broad, popular support (Brown v. Board of Education))
b. lack of influence in Congress (also Brown)
c. civil rights are involved
d. to establish a precedent
e. (civil rights interest groups also use grassroots lobbying—outside of the courts)
IV. Courts as Policymakers
B. Marbury v. Madison/judicial review
C. Original Intent
D. Judicial Activism
E. Judicial Restraint
V. Checks on the Court’s Power
A. Impeachment (judges serve during good behavior)
B. Congress can write clarifying legislation
C. Executive can refuse to enforce rulings
D. Constitutional Amendments (2/3 of both houses of Congress, 3/4 ratification in states)
Possible Free Response Topics
Influence of politics on appointment process
Influence of public opinion/insulation of Court from public opinion
Ways interest groups try to influence appointment/decisions making
Review Topic #10 – Civil Liberties and Rights
Sources:
I. Constitutional Rights and Liberties
A. The Bill of Rights
B. Barron v. Baltimore (1833)
C. The Fourteenth Amendment (1868)
1. Due Process (applies mostly in criminal cases)
2. Equal Protection (applies mostly in civil rights cases)
D. Selective Incorporation, Gitlow v. New York (1925)
E. Distinguishing civil liberties from civil rights
Civil Liberties
II. First Amendment
A. Free Speech
1. a fundamental right, state and local governments may place some restrictions, but must uphold this right
2. speech that presents a “clear and present danger” may be restricted, Schenck v. US (1919)
3. The First Amendment protects the “right to redress grievances” with the government
4. symbolic speech (flag burning, arm bands) is protected
B, Establishment Clause
1. Creates a “wall of separation” between church and state
2. Prohibits a state-sponsored church
III. Defendants’ Rights
A. Constitutional Rights
i. right to remain silent
ii. right to an attorney
iii. writ of habeas corpus (to be informed of the evidence against you)
iv. speedy and public trial
B. Miranda v. Arizona (1966)
C. Mapp v. Ohio (1961)/exclusionary rule
D. Gideon v. Wainright (1963)
IV. Right of Privacy
A. Fourth Amendment
B. Griswold v. Connecticut (1965)
C. Roe v. Wade ((1973)
D. Lawrence v. Texas (2003)
Civil Rights
1) Racial Discrimination
a) Legal Basis
(1) Thirteenth Amendment (1865)
(2) Fourteenth Amendment Equal Protection Clause (1868)
(3) Fifteenth Amendment (1870)
(4) Standard is strict scrutiny/inherently suspect
2) Key Cases
(1) Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857)/overturned by 14th Amendment
(2) Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
(3) Brown v. Topeka Board of Education (1954)/de jure segregation
Baker v. Carr (1962)
Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964)
Bakke v. University of California (1978)
Gratz/Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
3. Legislation
1. Civil Rights Act of 1964
2. Voting Rights Act of 1965
3.
II. Discrimination Against Women
A. Legislation
Equal Pay Act of 1963
Education Amendment Act of 1972 (Title IX)
B. Equal Rights Amendment (passed by Congress in 1974, never ratified by the states, despite extended deadline).
Possible Free Response Topics
Selective Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
Incorporation of Due Process Protections/Defendants’ Rights cases
Incorporation of Equal Protection/Civil Rights cases
Review Topic #11 – Public Policy
Sources:
I. Types of economies
1. Capitalism
2. Command
3. Mixed
II. Government and the economy
A. Unemployment and inflation
B. Controlling the economy
1. Monetary policy
2. Fiscal policy
III. Social Welfare Policy
IV.
A. Defining rich and poor
1. income v. wealth
2. income distribution and inequality
3. entitlements v. means-tested programs
B. Future of Social Welfare policy
V. Health Care
A. Who’s insured and how
1. Clinton Health Care reform
VI. The Environment
A. Conflict between the environment and economic growth
B. Role of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
1. Clean Air Act of 1970
2. Water Pollution Control Act of 1972
3. Endangered Species Act of 1973
4. Superfund (1980)
VII. Foreign and Defense Policy
A. Instruments, actors and policymakers
1. International organizations