American Diplo macy in the Early Republic, 1793 -1808
Lesson #3 : Britain, Napoleon, and the American Embargo, 1803-1808
I. I ntroduction
Foreign policy continued to dominate American political concerns between 1800 and 1807. In 1803 war once again broke out between France and Great Britain, and American commercial interests once more became a target for both countries. This lesson will examine the ways in which these countries challenged American neutrality during the Thomas Jefferson administration. By looking at government documents, civic toasts, and newspaper reports students will explore American interpretations of European actions, as well as the logic behind the decision to employ a retaliatory embargo.
II. Guiding Question
Was the embargo the best means of addressing European depredations on American shipping?
III. Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this lesson, student should be able to . . .
· Identify European attacks on American neutral rights
· Articulate the logic behind the Embargo Act of 1807
· Assess the arguments for and against the application of the embargo
IV. Back ground Information for Teachers
To understand American diplomacy after 1800 one must put it in an Atlantic context. After a brief interlude, Britain and France once again moved towards war by the end of 1803. The United States initially profited from these Napoleonic Wars, but by 1805 they began to pose significant challenges to American neutrality. The problem initially revolved around the “re-export” trade with French West Indies ports. The British Royal Navy had bottled French commerce, but French Caribbean merchants got around the problem by using neutral American vessels to carry their goods. Americans would take the cargo to their home ports. Merchants would subsequently re-export the goods to France, passing them off as American. In 1805 Britain became more than a little displeased with this trade. They declared that merely landing goods in the United States no longer proved that they had been imported and become “American.” Merchants would have to show additional, unspecified proof that vessels actually carried U.S. goods. The Royal Navy subsequently began seizing American vessels engaged in re-exportation.
This violation of neutral rights frustrated Americans, as did the continuing problem of impressment. As the Napoleonic Wars engulfed Europe, Royal Naval press gangs periodically boarded American vessels to reclaim British subjects. At times American citizens were pressed into service. Perhaps the most egregious example occurred in the summer of 1807, when sailors were removed from the American naval frigate U.S.S. Chesapeake. British officials had learned that at least four deserters from the Royal Navy were serving on the Chesapeake, but they had been unable to procure them through diplomatic channels. Thus in June 1807 the more heavily armed frigate H.M.S. Leopard (it was rated for fifty guns, as opposed to the Chesapeake’s thirty eight) approached the Chesapeake and demanded that a search party be allowed to board. The American commander refused and the British opened fire, killing three and wounding eighteen. Unable to defend itself, the Chesapeake struck its colors and the British impressed four sailors. As it turned out, three of the four were Americans; the fourth was hanged by the British for desertion.
There were still other issues complicating the Anglo-American relationship (particularly British violations of American territorial water, and conflicting definitions of blockades and contraband), but shifting French policy made the situation even worse for the United States. In an effort to get around British naval supremacy, Napoleon embarked on a policy of commercial warfare. His plan, known as the continental system, intended to destroy British prosperity by cutting off her trade with Europe. The first continental decree—the Berlin Decree of 1806—proclaimed a blockade of the British Isles, excluded from French occupied harbors all neutral vessels that had touched a British port, and declared all British-made goods lawful prize even when owned by neutral countries. Britain responded by proclaiming a blockade of all ports from which British goods were excluded. They also required neutral vessels wishing to trade in Europe to stop in Britain and pay transit duties. Napoleon responded to this law with the Milan Decree, which proclaimed that any neutral vessel submitting to British trade regulations was subject to seizure in French ports.
British and French declarations appeared to render trade with Europe virtually impossible. If American ships complied with French decrees, they would be seized by the British; if they submitted to the British, then the French would seize their goods. Making it worse was the fact that the United States Navy could do little to protect the American merchant fleet. At this time it had thirteen frigates, of which only seven were fit for duty. It did maintain a gunboat fleet for harbor defense, but these could do little actually to engage foreign enemies. The British Navy, by contrast, stood at approximately six hundred vessels, of which one hundred twenty were ships of the line and one hundred sixteen were frigates. Approximately one hundred British vessels patrolled the Western Atlantic alone. Although the French navy was less consequential after its defeat at Trafalgar, Napoleon’s control of Continental Europe meant that American vessels faced regular seizure in European ports.
The British reduced the scope of their blockades and transit duties in 1809, but losses under the French and British regulations were heavy. In late 1807 the Thomas Jefferson administration decided to retaliate with trade sanctions. Republican Party leaders were convinced that America’s greatest weapon was her economic power. They reasoned that if the United States could successfully remove its goods from international markets, the resulting economic downturn would force Britain and France to alter their diplomatic policy. Thus in December of 1807 Jefferson asked for and Congress passed an embargo act, which prohibited American ships and goods from leaving port at all. To enforce it (smuggling initially was rampant), Jefferson received increasingly broad powers, climaxing in the enforcement act of 1809, which gave customs officials sweeping power to use the army and navy to suppress smuggling. Enforcement was successful, but many people became disillusioned with the embargo because of its economic effect on the country. Exports, which had peaked at $108,000,000 in 1807, plummeted to $22,000,000 in 1808. The resulting economic crisis hit New England particularly hard, and allowed the Federalist Party to re-emerge as a viable political force.
Yet for all this domestic unrest the embargo had very little effect on England or France. The British simply found other sources to provide them with food and raw material, and readily expanded their own exports into South American markets. For his part, Napoleon had already lost much of his maritime trade and hardly noticed any economic impact. He even used the embargo as a pretext for stepping up the seizure of American ships—since they were supposed to be at home, these ships surely were British vessels in disguise.
V. Preparing to Teach this Lesson
Review the lesson plan. Locate and bookmark suggested materials and links from EDSITEment-reviewed websites used in this lesson. Download and print out selected documents and duplicate copies as necessary for student viewing. Alternatively, excerpted versions of these documents are available as part of the downloadable PDF file.
Download the Text Document for this lesson, available here as a PDF file. This file contains excerpted versions of the documents used in the first and second activities, as well as questions for students to answer. Print out and make an appropriate number of copies of the handouts you plan to use in class.
Analyzing primary sources
If your students lack experience in dealing with primary sources, you might use one or more preliminary exercises to help them develop these skills. The Learning Page at the American Memory Project of the Library of Congress includes a set of such activities. Another useful resource is the Digital Classroom of the National Archives, which features a set of Document Analysis Worksheets.
VI . Suggested Activities
Activity 1: European Turmoil
The resumption of war in Europe in 1803 posed significant challenges to American neutrality. The French and the British had put policies in place which made it illegal for the U.S. to trade with both countries at the same time. American merchants risked inspection of ships, seizure of goods and impressments by trying to continue business as usual with Europe. In late 1807 the Thomas Jefferson administration decided to retaliate with trade sanctions, reasoning that the removal of American goods from international markets would force Britain and France to alter their diplomatic policy. Thus in December of 1807 Jefferson asked for and Congress passed an embargo act.
In this activity students will read documents and answer questions that describe British and French trade policies, and the U.S. response to them. Divide students into groups of three. Group one will read and answer the documents for Great Britain. Group two will read the documents for France and Group three will read those for the United States. These documents are available in their entirety at the EDSITEment-reviewed sites the American Memory Project (.gov), Teaching American History (chingamericanhistory.org), and the Avalon Project (e.edu/lawweb/avalon), but excerpts of each may be found on pages 1-8 of the Text Document.
Group #1: Great Britain
British Orders in Council November 1807: .gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsp&fileName=003/llsp003.db&recNum=276 (pages 1-2 of the Text Document)
· To what French action(s) is the British Council reacting?
· List some of the steps the British will take in retaliation for French actions.
· What fraudulent activity is described?
· How do these orders impact the United States as it tries to trade freely and with neutrality wherever customers can be found?
Group #2: France
The Berlin Decree, November 21, 1806: http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1901 (pages 4-5 of the Text Document)
· List some of the ways that Napoleon suggests that the British have prevented neutral nations from trading with the continent.
· List several orders that describe how France and its allies will deal with British encroachment.
The Milan Decree, February 16, 1808: http://teachingamericanhistory.org/lib rary/index.asp?document=1902 (page 6 of the Text Document)
· According to this document, how will the French deal with all ships stopped by the British?
Group #3: United States
Jefferson’s Third Annual Message to Congress, October 7, 1803: e.edu/lawweb/avalon /presiden/sou/jeffmes3.htm (pages 7-8 of the Text Document)
· What steps does the document state will be taken to ensure the neutrality of the United States?
· What steps will be taken if the neutrality of the United States is abused?
· By what authority does Jefferson make these claims on behalf of the United States?
After completing the answers to the above questions, the teacher will lead a class discussion to produce a list of issues that divided the United States and the European belligerents. Students should write their list on the worksheet on page 9 of the Text Document. After discussing these lists, students (either for homework or in class if time permits) should imagine that they have been assigned the job of advising the President on a course of action in dealing with this situation. They should cite specific evidence from the documents in their responses. Letters should be at least 250 words.
Before they write their memos students should be reminded that the United States Navy was not in a position to protect the American merchant fleet. At this time it had thirteen frigates, of which only seven were fit for duty. It did maintain a gunboat fleet for harbor defense, but these could do little actually to engage foreign enemies. The British Navy, by contrast, stood at approximately six hundred vessels, of which one hundred twenty were ships of the line and one hundred sixteen were frigates. Approximately one hundred British vessels patrolled the Western Atlantic alone. Although the French navy was less consequential after its defeat at Trafalgar, Napoleon’s control of Continental Europe meant that American vessels faced regular seizure in European ports.
Activity 2: A Side of Toast
The Embargo Act of 1807 forbade all international trade to and from American ports. President Jefferson hoped that Britain and France would be persuaded of the value and the rights of neutral commerce. In January, 1808, the prohibition was extended to inland waters and land commerce to halt the skyrocketing trade with Canada. Merchants, sea captains, and sailors were naturally unhappy to find themselves without income and to see the ships rotting at the wharves. All sorts of tricks were used to circumvent the law. Enforcement powers were gradually expanded in 1808 and 1809, and this particularly frustrated New Englanders who looked on the scheme as an attempt to defraud them of a livelihood. Ultimately, the daring attempt to use economic pressure in a world at war was not successful. Britain and France stood firm.
This activity will investigate American discontent and support for the embargo. First, each student should read the excerpted section of the Embargo (available in its entirety at the EDSITEment-reviewed American Memory Project, and in excerpted form on page 10 of the Text Document) and complete the questions that follow.
Embargo Act of 1807: .gov/cgi-bin/ampage?col lId=llsl&fileName=002/llsl0 02.db&recNum=488
· List the methods of conveyance, products or cargo, and places affected by the embargo.
· What two things are necessary before loading cargo on a boat or ship plying United States’ waters?
· What is the method of enforcement for the embargo?
After discussing the answers as a whole class, students should then be divided into pairs to review the next documents, located at the EDSITEment-reviewed site Teaching American History. These documents show the differences in regional and political reaction to the embargo. One student will read the Republican documents and answer their corresponding questions and the other student will investigate the Federalist documents. Groups will review the answers to their documents with each. The teacher will then use the following questions to lead a whole class discussion.
· How did views of the embargo differ in different regions of the United States? Differ because of political affiliation?
· What reasons can you give to explain these differences in opinion?
Republican
Editorial from the Richmond Enquirer, December 10, 1808: chi ngamericanhistory. org/library/index.asp?document=1625 (page 12 of the Text Document)
· Why are the Americans from this region “sick” of the embargo?