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I. Deforestation

A. The Importance of Biodiversity

Forests, grasslands, deserts, wetlands, coral reefs, and other ecosystems throughout the world are coming under increasing stress from population growth and economic development. The three components of the planet’s biodiversity are (1) genetic diversity - variability in the genetic makeup among individuals within a single species; (2) species diversity - the variety of species on earth and in different habitats of the planet, and (3) ecological diversity - the variety of forests, deserts, grasslands, streams, lakes, oceans, and other biological communities that interact with one another and with their nonliving environments (Miller, 1994).

Because biodiversity is a vital part of the earth’s capital that sustains all life, preserving the planet’s genes, species, and ecosystems should be among our most important priorities. One way to do this is to protect species from sharp population declines and premature extinctions that result from human activities. However, most wildlife biologist believe that the best way to protect species diversity is to sustain and protect the earths ecosystems that serve as habitats. This means establishing a worldwide network of reserves, parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and other protected areas. Protecting these vital oases of biodiversity from damage, using them sustainably by learning how nature does this, and helping heal those we have damaged are important challenges (Miller, 1994).

As of 1993, about 7,000 protected areas throughout the world, occupy 4.9 percent of the earth’s land surface. That is an important beginning, but environmentalists say that a minimum of 10 percent of the globe’s land area must be protected. Moreover, many existing reserves are too small to provide any real protection for the populations of wild species that live on them. (Miller, 1994).

B. Forests

The forest is a focal ecosystem. Its state affects almost all other ecosystems. It plays a very crucial ecological role in soil and water conservation (Tujan, 1997).

Types of Forests

Old-growth forests are virgin (uncut) forests and old second-growth forests have not been seriously disturbed for several hundred years. They contain massive trees that are hundreds or even thousands of years old. The understory and other vegetation zones in old-growth forests provide ecological niches for a variety of wildlife species. These forests also have large numbers of standing dead trees (snags) and fallen logs (boles), which are habitats for a variety of species. Decay of this dead vegetation returns nutrients to the soil (Miller, 1994).

Second-growth forests are stands of trees resulting from secondary ecological succession after cutting. About 40 percent of tropical forests are second-growth forests. Some old second-growth stands have remained undisturbed long enough to be classified as old-growth forests, but many are tree farms - managed tracts of uniformly aged trees of one species that are harvested as soon as they become commercially valuable (Miller, 1994).

Commercial and Ecological Importance of Forests

Forests give us lumber for housing, biomass for fuelwood, pulp for paper, medicines, and many other valuable products such as turpentine, nuts and fruits, and charcoal. Many forestlands are also used for mining, grazing livestock, and recreation (Miller, 1994; Miller, 1994).

Forested watersheds act as giant sponges, slowing down runoff and absorbing and holding water that recharges springs, streams, and groundwater. Thus, they regulate the flow of water from mountain highlands to croplands and urban areas, and they help control soil erosion, reduce flooding, and reduce the amount of sediment washing into streams, lakes, and reservoirs (Miller, 1994; Miller, 1994).

Forests also influence local, regional, and global climate. For example, 50 – 80 percent of the moisture in the air above tropical forests comes from trees via transpiration and evaporation. If large areas of these lush forests are cleared, average annual precipitation drops, the regions climate gets hotter and drier, and soils become depleted of already-scarce nutrients, baked, and washed away. Eventually this process can convert a diverse tropical forest into a sparse grassland or even a desert (Miller, 1994; Miller, 1994).

Forests also provide habitats for more wildlife species than any other biome, making them the planet’s major reservoir of biodiversity. They also buffer us against noise, absorb air pollutants, and nourish the human spirit. Since agriculture began about 10,000 years ago, human activities have reduced the earth’s forest cover by at least one-third, to about 34 percent of the world’s land area (Miller, 1994).

Forest act as carbon sink that traps carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere. According to studies, a hectare of vegetated forests can trap a ton of carbon dioxide every year. Forests, too, can moderate local climate (Tujan, 1997).

Forests serve as efficient watersheds, collecting and regulating the flow of water supply which can be tapped for household and industrial use, or agricultural irrigation.

Forests prevent flash floods. They control soil erosion and water pollution. Aside from being the source of wood and water, forests also supply power.

Philippine forests host one of the world’s richest plant and animal species. They are estimated to harbor about 8,120 species of flowering plants, 3,500 species of indigenous trees, 33 species of gymnosperms, 640 species of mosses, 2,400 species and sub-species of fish, around 240 species and sub-species of mammals. There are 3,000 species of plants which are endemic (i.e. found nowhere else in the world) to the Philippines. The Philippine forests also harbor around 7.1 million indigenous peoples (Tujan, 1997).

Depleted forests means less sources of food, medicinal plants and renewable energy, and less capacity to nurture genetic species. Degraded forests translate to erosion of otherwise productive lands, siltation and sedimentation of inland and coastal waters, among others. Cleared forests could spell the loss of home and livelihood for 18.6 million indigenous peoples and upland dwellers (Tujan, 1997).

The Philippine Forests

The Philippine forests are among the most diverse in the world and are also the most endangered. The state of Philippine forests is critical. Latest estimates place the country’s remaining forest areas at 5.6 million hectares from 20 million hectares a century ago. (Table 1) This forest cover is roughly 18.6 percent of the country’s total land area, and thus, far below the country’s ideal forest cover. For the Philippines to be ecologically sound and able to sustain its ecosystems, its ideal forest cover, or what is fit for its narrow, mountainous terrain, should be 54 percent of its land area (Tujan, 1997; EMB, DENR, 1994).

Table 3 further loses significance considering government definition of forests simply as areas of one hectare or more and at least 60 meters wide which are at least 10 percent stocked with forest trees (including seedlings and saplings), wild palms, bamboo or brush.

Table 3. Change in forest land area, selected years

Year / Forest Cover
(million hectares) / Proportion to Total Land Area (%) / Deforestation Rate
(hectares/year
1575
1863
1920
1934
1970
1980
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995 / 27.5
20.9
18.9
17.8
10.9
7.4
6.2
6.0
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6 / 92.0
70.0
64.0
57.3
36.3
24.7
20.7
20.5
19.6
19.3
18.9
18.6 / 22,917
35,088
78,571
191,667
350,000
120,000
120,000
120,000
120,000
120,000
120,000
120,000
Source: Department of Environment and Natural Resources

The Philippine forests have been steadily shrinking at an average rate of 2 percent per annum, or a relatively fast deforestation rate of 550,000 hectares per year. This rate means that every hour, 63 hectares of forests are cleared. At this rate, all our forests would be gone by the turn of the century.

Because the country is an archipelago with diverse terrain, flora species also vary. Thus, the Philippine forests are further categorized into dipterocarp (66.06%), mossy (18.9%), sub-marginal (8.7%), pine (4.1%), and mangrove (2.1%) (Table 4).

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Dipterocarp forests, prevalent all throughout the archipelago, are the most important type. They are the major source of timber and other forest products. They support one of the world’s richest plant and animal life, and have nurtured innumerable generations of tribal Filipinos. Philippine dipterocarp forests can either be old growth - the tropical rainforests without traces of commercial logging (sometimes known as virgin forests) - or residual - those with traces of commercial logging. Table 4 shows that there are now more residual forests than an old-growth forests, a complete reversal of the situation early this century (Tujan, 1997; EMB, DENR, 1996).

Table 4 shows that in the past eight years alone, dipterocarp forests narrowed down by 24 percent, residual forests by 20 percent, and old growth by the fastest rate of 34 percent. While Table 4 shows that since 1991, the area of old growth forests has been maintained (presumably because of the government log ban policies), deforestation of old growth forests is irreversible. For every five years since 1970, the deforestation rate increased (Table 5).

Table 5. Change in old-growth dipterocarp forest area

Year

/ Area
(in million has.) / Deforestation
Rate
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995 / 5.217
3.687
2.443
1.539
0.861
0.805 / 306,000
249,000
181,000
136,000
11,000
Source: Philippine Forestry Statistics, various years

On the other hand, mossy and sub-marginal forests protect watershed areas and provide a sustainable supply of water for irrigation and domestic use in the lowlands. They also protect the soil and water of wildlife feeding grounds. They are not commercially exploitable (Tujan, 1997; EMB, DENR, 1996).

Still, majority of the country’s watersheds are considered bydrologically critical because of their present degraded condition. Erosion of watershed areas has already reached critical proportions (Table 6). Of the 11 million hectares of critically denuded forest land, at least two million hectares are in critical watershed areas, like those of the Agno River, Pampanga River, Cagayan River, the Maga, and the Pantabangan watersheds (Tujan, 1997; EMB, DENR, 1996; Sajise, 1992).

Table 6. Extent of degradation of watershed areas extended for agriculture
and non-agriculture uses (in ‘000 Hectares)
AGRICULTURE
Moderate to Proportion /

NON-AGRICULTURE

Moderate to Proportion
Area / Severe
Erosion / Eroded / Area / Severe
Erosion / Eroded
Luzon
Vizayas
Mindanao
Philippines / 5,994
1,294
5,480
12,767 / 1,440
501
3,868
5,809 / 24.0%
38.7%
70.6%
45.5% / 8,146
2,174
4,720
15,039 / 4,564
1,320
4,129
10,013 / 56.0%
60.7%
87.5%
66.6%
Source: ALMED -Bureau of Soils and Water Management, 1990

Pine forests are endemic to the higher altitudes of Luzon while mangroves occur on tidal flats along the sea coast up to the streams where the water is brackish (Tujan, 1997; EMB, DENR, 1994).

Forest Distribution in the Philippines

No data is available that solely pins down forest destruction as the cause of soil erosion and sedimentation. However, it is estimated that deforestation-induced erosion is 100,000 hectares at one meter depth of one billion cubic meters every year (Tujan, 1997; Sajise, 1992).

The Environmental Management Bureau reported in 1990 that, because of forest denudation, 22 of the country’s provinces were already badly eroded. Aside from soil erosion, the capacity of the soil to hold water deteriorated with forest destruction. In Cebu, where forests have been almost totally lost, underground water coming out of private wells have become brackish.

Siltation problems occur in major rivers and dams because of the destruction of watersheds. The glaring example is the Agno River, some areas of which overflow to surrounding fields due to heavy siltation. Deforestation also reduces rainfall, as was found in a study in Northern Luzon in the mid-seventies (Tujan, 1997).

Much of our floods are traceable to forest denudation. Examples are flooding catastrophes in Cagayan Valley where entire villages were washed away in Mindanao where flash floods occur every now and then, in very denuded Negros which experienced destructive floods which brought down huge logs from the mountains and eroded thousands of hectares of productive farm land. In 1991, the tragedy in Ormoc City, which has only 10 percent forest cover left, claimed 8,000 lives and millions worth of properties (Tujan, 1997; Vitug, 1993).

Forest destruction has also threatened the country’s genetic resources, putting many species on the endangered list, and bringing some on the verge of extinction (Table 7). Out of 1,657 existing wildlife species in the country, 47 country could be extinct by now, are endangered (including the tamaraw, crocodile and the famous monkey -eating eagle). Seven ornamental plants are endangered and the gigantic molave trees, “the best that can be found in the universe”, are practically extinct. Aside from List 1, as of 1996, there have been 10 identified rare, endemic, and endangered plants of the Philippines (Tujan, 1997; EMB, DENR, 1996).

Table 7: Partial list of priority species
Common Name
Fauna
A. Wild Birds
Spot-billed Pelican/Philippine Pelican
Serpent Eagle
Philippine Eagle/Monkey Eating Eagle
Philippine Hawk Eagle
Philippine Megapode/Incubator Bird
Palawan Peacock Pheasant
Negros Fruit Dove
Luzon Bleeding Heart Pigeon
Nicobar Pigeon
Mt. Apo Lorikeet/Mindanao Lorikeet
Philippine Cockatoo/Red-vented Cockatoo
Philippine Hanging Parakeet
Oriental Hawk Owl/Philippine Horned Owl
Mindanao Parrotfinch
Peregrine Falcon
Spotted Green Shank
Mindoro Imperial Pigeon
Koch’s Pitta
Giant Scops Owl
Parrots (all species)
Falcons
Pygmy Curlew
Rufous Hornbill
B. Mammals
Tamaraw
Calamian Deer
Mouse Deer/Luzon Sambar Deer
Palawan Bear-Cat
Luzon Forest Rat
Philippine Monkey/Long-Tailed Macaque
Philippine Tarsier
Philippine Tree Shrew/Mindanao Slender-tailed Shrew
Palawan Scaly Anteater
Dugong
Pangolin
C. Reptilla
Philippine or Freshwater crocodile
Gray Monitor Lizard
Leyte Freshwater Turtle
Hawksbill Turtle
Olive-backed/Pacific Ridley’s Logger Head
Table 5. Con’t…
Green Sea Turtle
Saltwater or Estuarine Crocodile
Phyton
Flora
Sander’s Alocasia
Striped Alocasia
Pither Plant
Orchids
Bungang Ipot
Voyavoi
Calakab/Dalubi
Tagbak
Cycas/Pitogo
Ferns
Aloe/Sabila
Cactus
CITES I – Trade of species and subspecies of wildlife is strictly prohibited except for education, scientific or research and study purposes.
CITE II – Populations of species and subspecies of wildlife highly need local protection set under national policies as determined by the country’s CITES Management Authority
CITES – Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna / Status
Threatened
CITES II
Endangered - CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
Vulnerable - CITES II
Threatened
Threatened - CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
Insufficiently known - CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
Threatened
CITES I
CITES I
CITES I
CITES I
CITES I
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
Vulnerable - CITES II
Vulnerable
CITES III
CITES III
Indeterminate
CITES II
Endangered
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
Rare - CITES II
Indeterminate
CITES I
CITES I
CITES I
CITES I
CITES II
CITES I
CITES I
CITES I
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
CITES II
Source: Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, 1996

Lastly, the destruction of our forests spells the displacement and dislocation of the indigenous peoples and upland dwellers whose virtual environments are the forests.