Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals
NEW GENDER MAINSTREAMING SERIES ON DEVELOPMENT ISSUES
Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals
A handbook for policy-makers and other stakeholders
Naila Kabeer
Commonwealth Secretariat
International Development Research Centre
Ottawa • Cairo• Dakar • Montevideo • Nairobi • New Delhi • Singapore
Gender Section
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© The Commonwealth
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International Development
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Gender Management System Handbook
Using Gender Sensitive Indicators: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in Agriculture and Rural Development: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in Development Planning: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in Education: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in Finance: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in Information and Communications: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in Legal and Constitutional Affairs: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in the Public Service: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in Science and Technology: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in Trade and Industry: A Reference Manual for Governments and Other Stakeholders
Gender Mainstreaming in HIV/AIDS: Taking a Multisectoral Approach
Gender Mainstreaming in the Health Sector: Experiences in Commonwealth Countries
Promoting an Integrated Approach to Combating Gender-Based Violence
A Quick Guide to the Gender Management System
A Quick Guide to Using Gender Sensitive Indicators
A Quick Guide to Gender Mainstreaming in Development Planning
A Quick Guide to Gender Mainstreaming in Education
A Quick Guide to Gender Mainstreaming in Finance
A Quick Guide to Gender Mainstreaming in the Public Service
A Quick Guide to Gender Mainstreaming in Trade and Industry
A Quick Guide to Gender Mainstreaming in Information and Communications
About the author
Naila Kabeer is Professorial Fellow at the Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex. She is a social economist and has been involved in teaching, research and advisory work in the field of gender, poverty, population and social policy. She is the author of Reversed Realities: Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought (1994) and The Power to Choose: Bangladeshi Women and Labour Market Decisions in London and Dhaka (2000).
Publication team
GMS Series Coordinator: Rawwida Baksh-Soodeen
Editor: Tina Johnson
Picture research: Tina Johnson
Production: Rupert Jones-Parry
Production support: Linda Etchart
IDRC team: Randy Spence, Bill Carman, Anyck Dauphin
We hereby acknowledge the invaluable contribution of the members of the Commonwealth Expert Panel who met at Marlborough House on 3 December 2001 to review the first draft of this publication:
Rudo Chitiga, Commonwealth Foundation
Francesca Cook, DAC-Secretariat, OECD
Malcolm Ehrenpreis, World Bank, UK
Lucia Hanmer, Department for International Development (DfID), UK
Gerd Johnsson-Latham, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Sweden
Shireen Lateef, Asian Development Bank (ADB)
Lin Lean Lim, International Labour Organization (ILO)
Rachel Masika, Oxfam UK
Donna St Hill, Women’s Budget Group, UK
John Sender, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London
Randy Spence, International Development Research Centre (IDRC)
Howard White, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex
Anne Whitehead, Faculty of Arts, University of Sussex
Sushila Zeitlyn, Department for International Development (DfID), UK
Tim Shaw, Institute of Commonwealth Studies, University of London
Staff members of Commonwealth Secretariat Divisions:
Economic Affairs Division: Indrajit Coomaraswamy
Governance and Institutional Development Division: Michael Gillibrand, Jasim Jasimuddin
Political Affairs Division: Chuks Ihekaibeya
Social Transformation Programmes Division: Rawwida Baksh-Soodeen, Lucia Kiwala, Valencia Mogegeh, Maryse Roberts, Nancy Spence
Special Advisory Services Division: Kamala Bhoolai, Rosemary Minto
Strategic Planning and Evaluation Division: Richard Longhurst
Youth Affairs Unit: Jane Foster, Andrew Simmons
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Contents
Abbreviations / viiForeword / ix
Executive Summary / xiii
1. Gender, Poverty and Development Policy / 1
Introduction / 1
A Brief History of Poverty Reduction Policies / 4
Up to the 1960s: Early strategies for growth / 4
1970s and 1980s: Economic crises and structural adjustment / 4
1990s: Reports from the World Bank and UNDP / 5
2000: World Development Report (WDR) / 6
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) / 7
Putting Gender on the Policy Agenda / 11
1970s and 1980s: Making the links between gender and development / 11
Gender and the 1990 World Development Report / 14
Gender and the Human Development Report (HDR) / 15
Gender and the 2000 World Development Report / 17
The World Bank’s 2001 report / 17
Gender and the Millennium Development Goals / 19
Conclusion / 21
2. Integrating Gender into Macroeconomic Analysis / 23
Introduction / 23
Gender Bias in Macroeconomic Analysis / 23
Early models of economic growth / 24
The gender bias in macroeconomic analysis / 26
Making models less gender-blind / 32
Gender and micro-economic responses / 33
Institutions and actors in a gendered economy / 35
Empirical Findings / 36
The impact of macro-level policy / 36
Gender and ‘computable general equilibrium’ (CGE) models / 38
Gender Equality and Economic Growth: Competing Hypotheses / 39
a. The ‘positive synergy’ hypothesis / 41
b. The ‘trade-off’ hypothesis / 42
Conclusion / 44
3. The Geography of Gender Inequality / 47
Introduction / 47
Institutions and Gender Inequality / 50
Regional Perspectives on Gender Inequality / 51
Asia / 52
Latin America and the Caribbean / 55
Sub-Saharan Africa / 57
Updating the Geography of Gender / 58
Globalisation and the rise of flexible labour markets / 59
Gender and labour force participation in the 1980s and 1990s / 62
Gender and hierarchies in the labour market / 72
Classifying Gender Constraints / 74
Conclusion / 76
4. Approaches to Poverty Analysis and its Gender Dimensions / 79
Introduction / 79
The Poverty Line Approach / 79
Separating the poor from the non-poor / 79
Female-headed households and the ‘feminisation of poverty’ / 81
The Capabilities Approach / 83
Expanding the concepts of ‘means’ and ‘ends’ / 83
Gender inequality and human development / 84
Gender inequality and the GDI indicators / 87
Male disadvantage / 93
Summary / 95
Participatory Poverty Assessments (PPAs) / 96
Poverty from the perspective of the poor / 96
Participatory assessments and gender / 99
Limitations of participatory assessments / 101
Conclusion / 104
5. Gender Inequality and Poverty Eradication: Promoting Household Livelihoods / 107
Introduction / 107
Gender Inequality and Household Poverty in South Asia / 108
Women’s work and household survival / 108
The gender distribution of work in rural areas / 109
Household poverty and women’s paid work / 112
Gender and work in urban areas / 115
Household poverty and women’s work in urban areas / 117
Gender Inequality and Household Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa / 120
Gender and economic activity in the rural economy / 122
Household poverty and women’s economic activity / 127
Gender and economic activity in the urban economy / 132
Links Between Gender Inequality and Income Poverty: The Wider Picture / 135
Women’s work and household survival / 136
Women’s work and household responses to crisis / 137
Female headship and household poverty / 139
Gender inequality and returns to women's work / 142
Conclusion / 144
6. Gender Equality and Human Development Outcomes: Enhancing Capabilities / 147
Introduction / 147
Gender Inequality and Human Development: The Equity Rationale / 148
Gender inequality and basic well-being / 148
Gender inequality and child survival: the evidence from South Asia / 149
Gender inequality and the quantity-quality trade-off / 152
Gender inequality, work burdens and nutrition / 154
Gender inequality and hazardous livelihoods / 157
Gender Inequality and Family Well-being: The Instrumental Rationale / 160
Gender, resources and children’s well-being: the social connections / 161
Gender, resources and family welfare: preferences and priorities / 162
Conclusion / 166
7. Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment / 169
Introduction / 169
Conceptualising Empowerment: Agency, Resources and Achievement / 170
Access to Education and Women’s Empowerment / 175
Positive effects of education / 175
Limits to education as a route to empowerment / 177
Access to Paid Work and Women’s Empowerment / 181
Waged work in the agricultural sector / 181
Waged work in the non-agricultural sector / 182
Voice, Participation and Women’s Empowerment / 185
Women in national parliaments / 185
Women in local government / 188
Agency and Collective Action: Building Citizenship 190 from the Grassroots / 190
Conclusion / 193
8. Institutionalising Gender Equity Goals in the Policy Process / 197
Introduction / 197
Gender Equality and Economic Growth: Synergy or Trade-off? / 197
Gender equality and pro-poor growth: synergy or 200 trade-off? / 200
The effects of economic growth on gender equality / 202
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs): A Gender Audit / 204
The content and process of PRSPs / 204
Gender issues in the PRSPs / 205
Gender inequalities in voice, power and influence in the PRSPs / 209
Some lessons from the PRSP experience / 210
Sectoral strategies for poverty reduction / 216
Gender-responsive Budget (GRB) Analysis / 220
National experiences of GRBs / 223
Policy options highlighted by GRB analysis / 224
Mainstreaming Gender in Policy-making Institutions / 225
The Gender Management System (GMS) / 226
Mobilising around Gender Equity Goals: Building Active Citizenship / 229
Conclusion / 232
Select Bibliography / 235
Glossary / 243
Tables
1.1: The Millennium Development Goals / 8
3.1: Estimated Economic Activity Rate of Women and Female Percentage of the Labour Force / 63
3.2: Employment by Economic Activity / 66
66 7.1: Women in Public Life / 186
Figures
2.1. The ‘Iceberg’ View of the Economy / 28
3.1. Social Hierarchy of Livelihoods / 61
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Abbreviations
AIDS / Acquired Immunodeficiency SyndromeACC/SCN / Subcommittee on Nutrition of the UN Administrative Committee on Coordination
BMI / Body mass index
CGE / Computable general equilibrium
CYSD / Centre for Youth and Social Development
DAWN / Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era
DfID / Department for International Development
DHS / Demographic and Health Survey
GDI / Gender Development Index
GDP / Gross Domestic Product
GEM / Gender Empowerment Measure
GMS / Gender Management System
GNP / Gross National Product
GRB / Gender-responsive budget
HDI / Human Development Index
HDR / Human Development Report
HIPC / Highly Indebted Poor Countries
HIV / Human Immunodeficiency Virus
IDRC / International Development Research Centre
IDTs / International Development Targets
IFAD / International Fund for Agricultural Development
ILO / International Labour Organization
IMF / International Monetary Fund
I-PRSP / Interim Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
JSRs / Juvenile sex ratios
LDCs / Least Developed Countries
MDB / Multilateral development bank
MDGs / Millennium Development Goals
MFIs / Micro-finance institutions
NGO / Non-governmental organisation
NIUA / National Institute of Urban Affairs
NSS / National Sample Survey
NTAEs / Non-traditional agricultural exports
NUDE / National Union of Domestic Employees
ODA / Official development assistance
OECD / Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
PPA / Participatory Poverty Assessment
PR / Proportional representation
PRA / Participatory Rural Appraisal
PRSP / Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
RSW / Relative Status of Women
SAPs / Structural adjustment policies
SEWA / Self-Employed Women’s Association
SNA / System of National Accounts
STI / Sexually transmitted infection
UN / United Nations
UNDP / United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF / United Nations Children’s Fund
UNIFEM / United Nations Development Fund for Women
UNRISD / United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
WBI / Women’s Budget Initiative
WDR / World Development Report
WHO / World Health Organization
WIEGO / Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing
WILPF / Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom
Foreword
Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Development Goals: A Handbook for Policy-makers and Other Stakeholders forms a timely inclusion into the Commonwealth Secretariat series on gender mainstreaming in critical multisectoral development issues. It is hoped that it will be used by development policy-makers, planners and others, in conjunction with other publications relating to particular national contexts.
In 1996, the Commonwealth Ministers Responsible for Women’s/Gender Affairs mandated the Commonwealth Secretariat to develop the concept and methodology of the Gender Management System (GMS), a holistic system-wide approach to bringing a gender perspective to bear in the mainstream of all government policies, plans and programmes.
The success of the GMS depends on a broad-based partnership in society in which government consults and acts co-operatively with other key stakeholders, who include civil society and the private sector. The task of gender mainstreaming has both technical and managerial dimensions, as well as the political, economic and socio-cultural aspects of creating equality and equity between women and men as partners in the quest for social justice.