Introductory Paragraphs
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Your introductory paragraph is extremely important. It sets the tone for the entire paper and introduces your reader to your argument. In almost all cases, you want to be sure the paragraph has the following components: a thesis statement and a preview of how you will make your argument.
Some of the most common problems with introductory paragraphs are:
1) No thesis statement. Remember that your thesis statement needs to be an argument, not simply a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response to the question. What will you argue? Within the thesis statement or in the next sentence you must say something about why you are making that argument. Also, be bold and direct about your thesis. OWN it. Don’t beat around the bush with lots of qualifying statements.
2) No indication to the reader how the argument will be made. In addition to the WHAT question (what will you argue?), there is the HOW question. How will you make your argument? Your introductory paragraph should say something about the logic, evidence or points you will present in support of your thesis.
3) Opening the paper with a discussion of the nature of the universe. Don’t start your paper with huge, sweeping statements about the world. Cut to the chase. What material are you engaging? Who is making what arguments? What do you have to say about those arguments?
4) Sloppy punctuation. Don't frustrate your reader by forgetting to proofread for basic grammar problems. USE THE APOSTROPHE for possessives (i.e., Thompson's book, not Thompsons book). But don’t use apostrophes to say the possessive "its." LEARN HOW TO USE THE COMMA. If you aren’t sure when to use a comma, refer to a style manual or go to the Writing Center technical assistance website.
5) Imprecise word choices. You always want to avoid words that are vague (such as "problematic") but this is particularly true for the introductory paragraph. Your reader will immediately have questions about your meaning. Be as specific as possible. Instead of writing, "Foster’s argument is problematic," (which doesn’t tell your reader very much) think about what aspect of Foster’s argument has a problem and what sort of problem it is. Is it inaccurate? Is it naïve? inconsistent? incoherent? ridiculous?
6) Overuse of quotations. It is usually best not to begin or end your introductory paragraph with a quotation. You weaken your argument by relying on someone else’s words so early on in the paper. If you do quote in the first paragraph, make sure it is short and to the point.
Thesis Statements
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A writing assignment is designed to make an argument of some sort. In order to do that, it must be well organized and make a clear point. The framework and structure of the paper must be clear so as to direct the reader along the path of your argument. To accomplish this task, you need to develop a clear thesis. A thesis is the central argument. It is essential that it be concise and well written. It should be provided early on in your paper, so as to give the reader a road map and a sense of direction. Don't bury it, state it clearly and visibly. Developing a well-written thesis, and then revising and revisiting it, will help you develop a clearer understanding of your paper and your argument.
Thesis statements must make a claim. Thesis statements are not statements of fact, and they should be more than a simple point of view. For example:
Statement of fact: "Karl Marx was a political thinker who believed that capitalism exploits working people." This is a point that is essentially undisputeable.
Similarly, the claim "The United Nations is an organization comprised of different nation-states around the world" is not likely to inspire much debate.
Opinion statements: On the other hand, the sentence "Marx was wrong about capitalism because capitalism is good for people" is closer to a thesis statement because it makes a claim - it takes a stand or a perspective on a particular topic. But in this format it is too much of an opinion and not enough of an argument.
Similarly, "The United Nations is an ineffective organization" is closer to a thesis statement than the factual statement about the United Nations because it raises a point that is debateable. But again, in this format it doesn't offer the reader much information and, thus, it sounds like the author is simply stating their viewpoint which may or may not be substantiated by evidence.
The key difference between an opinion statement and thesis statement is that the latter conveys to the reader that the claim being offered has been thoroughly explored and is defendable by evidence.
Thesis statements: Thus, in the first example, you need to indicate that you have a clear sense of which of Marx's views were wrong and why they were wrong (by "wrong" do you mean incorrect, inaccurate, silly, ridiculous, unsupported...?). Furthermore, you would need to specify what you mean by capitalism being "good" for people. Good in what sense? It makes them happy? successful? productive? Being specific in your claims means that you will have to think through your evidence to be sure it supports your conclusions. By doing this, you will make it clear to your reader that your thesis is something that you have considered and are able to support through the knowledge you have acquired in the course.
Thus, you may end up with:
Marx's views about capitalism were rooted in a specific time and place, neither of which are true today; his arguments that capitalism exploits working people, when re-examined in contemporary society, do not account for the high standard of living enjoyed by a great many workers around the world.
Note: You should always think about what another argument (perhaps the opposite one) would look like if you were to try to counter your own. This will ultimately strengthen your argument because it requires you to justify to yourself and others why you think what you think. For example, one could counter the above thesis statement with:
Marx's critique of capitalism, though written over 100 years ago, is still devastating today; with the gap between rich and poor increasing even in the world's richest countries such as the U.S., it has become clear that a capitalist economic system can only result in massive exploitation of the working class.
Of course, one can re-work a thesis statement indefinitely and one can almost always find something at fault with it. But the point is that you must be sure that your thesis statement is indicating to your reader that you have an argument to make.
In addition, your thesis should also help you organize your paper. As you present your argument in your thesis, it should lay out how you will organize your paper. For example if your thesis is, "The organization of the UN makes it incapable of preventing war between major powers," this then gives the central structure to your paper. First you will explore the UN's organizational structure. Then you will examine why that structure hampers the UN's ability to keep peace. After laying the foundations of your central argument, you can elaborate on the specific logical steps within your thesis. You can add to the argument above, by describing the organizational structures you wish to explore, such as the Security Council, funding of the UN, and other assorted points that you are going to explore more fully in your paper. Always be sure to present them in order as they will appear in order as they will appear in your paper. In the end, your thesis should lay out your argument and provide the reader with a map to the paper.
Plagiarism and Student Writing
Plagiarism occurs whenever someone uses the ideas or writings of another as their own without giving due credit. According to the Committee on Academic Conduct (1994, p. 23), a student commits plagiarism by:
- 1. Using another writer's words without proper citation.
If you use another writer's words, you must place quotation marks around the quoted material and include a footnote or other indication of the source of the quotation.
- 2. Using another writer's ideas without proper citation.
When you use another author's ideas, you must use a citation to indicate where this information can be found. Your instructors want to know which ideas and judgments are yours and which you arrived at by consulting other sources. Even if you arrived at the same judgment on your own, you need to acknowledge that the writer you consulted also came up the with idea....
- 3. Citing your source but reproducing the exact words of a printed source without quotation marks.
This makes it appear that you have paraphrased rather than borrowed the author's exact words.
- 4. Borrowing the structure of another author's phrases or sentences without crediting the author from whom it came.
This kind of plagiarism usually occurs out of laziness: it is easier to replicate another writer's style than to think about what you have read and then put it in your own words. For example (Hacker, 1989, p. 171):
Original: If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it was also startling news for animal behaviorists.
Unacceptable borrowing of words: An ape who knew sign language unsettled linguists and startled animal behaviorists.
Unacceptable borrowing of sentence structure: If the presence of a sign-language-using chimp was disturbing for scientists studying language, it was also surprising to scientists studying animal behavior.
Acceptable paraphrasing: When they learned of an ape's ability to use sign language, both linguists and animal behaviorists were taken by surprise.
- 5. Borrowing all or part of another student's paper or using someone else's outline to write your own paper.
- 6. Using a paper writing "service" or having a friend write the paper for you.
Regardless of whether you pay a stranger or have a friend do it, it is a breach of academic honesty to hand in work that is not your own or to use parts of another student's paper.
What Are the Consequences of Plagiarism at the University of Washington?
The procedures of the College of Arts and Sciences for handling cases of plagiarism are the following: "an instructor need not give credit for work which is the product of cheating, plagiarism, or other academic misconduct. However, the lowering of a course grade is not appropriate as a disciplinary sanction." In other words, you can receive a failing grade for writing a plagiarized paper. Or, you may receive an incomplete until the case is brought before the College Disciplinary Committee. The result in most cases is academic probation for the student involved. For more information, see the Statement of Academic Responsibility in the UW Bachelor's Degree Handbook.
How Do You Avoid Plagiarism?
· Understand your subject! Often students will want to recopy entire sections of a scientific paper -- with or without crediting the original author -- because they don't really understand what they are writing. If you can't put the information into your own words, you aren't ready to write about it. To learn how to paraphrase what you want to write, first try to explain it to someone else.
· Use others' ideas or writing as support for, not in place of, your own ideas. If your ideas come directly from another source, cite that source.
· When taking notes for a paper, always distinguish your ideas from those from the source you are reading. Establish a pattern and use it consistently. For example, write information obtained from another source in brackets or parentheses, and write your own ideas without brackets. Alternatively, use different colors of ink to distinguish between original and non-original ideas.
· Always paraphrase unless you are quoting directly. Rework an idea and shorten it. If the idea is new, or not common knowledge, make sure to cite the source in a footnote or in the body of your paper.
When Do You Use Quotation Marks?
· Use quotation marks whenever you are using someone else's words exactly, but use direct quotes sparingly (e.g., to support your point with the words of an authority, or when original wording is unusual, strong, or characteristic of the speaker). Writing in your own words, using a few quotes to strengthen your main points, shows that you understand your topic. Stringing quotes together suggests that you don't. Arguments made in scientific writing rarely focus on the specific words used in the source material -- unlike arguments made in literary criticism, for example -- so students may find that they use quotes less often in scientific papers.
When Do You Use Footnotes or Citations?
· Anytime that you quote someone, you must refer to the source and exact page number. If you are paraphrasing another writer's ideas or opinions, or information that is not common knowledge, you must cite the source. Citations are important, not only because they give credit to the original author, but also because they allow your reader to find the original information.
The Introductory Paragraph
From Grace Fleming,
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Start With a Great First Sentence
First impressions are so important. How many times have you heard that? It is true that the first impression—whether it’s a first meeting with a person or the first sentence of a paper—sets the stage for a lasting opinion.