4thGradeELA2015GEORGIA MILESTONESSTUDYGUIDE

TableofContents:

Skill / Page# / Skill / Page# / Skill / Page
#
Readingcomprehension / 1 / Introductionsandconclusions / 27 / Comparativesandsuperlatives / 52
Inferencesandconclusions / 2 / Logicalorder / 28 / Capitalization / 54
Summarizing / 3 / Transitionandflow / 29 / Spelling / 56
Theme / 4 / Headings / 31 / Multiplemeaningwords / 58
Characteranalysis / 4 / Captions / 32 / Contextclues / 59
Dialogue / 5 / Preciselanguage / 33 / Affixes / 59
Plotandsetting / 6 / Appropriatelanguageandwritingpurpose / 34 / Dictionaryuse / 61
Imagery / 7 / Prewriting / 35 / Thesaurususe / 64
Simileandmetaphor / 8 / Narrowingdownatopic / 38 / Glossaryuse / 65
Drama / 8 / Revisingandproofreading / 38 / Idioms / 67
Poetry: Stanza,Meter,Rhythm / 10 / Proofreadingandediting / 40 / Adagesandproverbs / 67
RhymeScheme / 11 / Resources / 40 / Synonymsandantonyms / 68
Genre / 11 / Typesof researchresources / 40 / Pronoun-antecedentagreement / 69
Author’sattitude / 14 / Reliablesources / 41 / Subject-verbagreement / 71
Authorbias / 15 / Makingconnections / 42 / Prepositions / 73
Narratorandspeaker / 15 / Paraphrasing / 42 / Typesof Sentences / 74
Pointofview / 16 / Takingnotes / 43 / SubjectPredicate / 74
Illustrations / 16 / Citingsources / 43 / DependentIndependentClauses / 75
Graphics / 17 / Conjunctions / 46 / Nouns / 75
Compareandcontrast / 21 / Prepositions / 47 / Pronouns / 75
Mainidea / 22 / Interjections / 48 / UseyourStudyGuideCalendareachnight!!
Followinginstructions / 23 / Verbtenses / 48
Causeandeffect / 24 / Irregularverbs / 50
Textorganization / 25 / Troublesomeverbs / 50
Supportingsentences / 26 / Adjectivesandadverbs / 51

READINGSTANDARDSFORLITERATURE

ReadingComprehension

Searchfortheanswerinthestory.

  • Afteryoureadastoryorarticle,you mightwant togoback toit—especiallyifyouhaveaquestionover acertainpart. Sometimestheansweriswrittenword-for-wordinthepassage.Justonesentenceor oneword canansweraquestion. Youjusthavetosearchand dig! Bepatient!

Neverskipaword.

  • You canoftenfigureout themeaningofwordsyou don'tknow byusingotherwordsasclues.Also,usewhatyouknowaboutroot words,prefixes,andsuffixestohelpyoufigureout meanings!Eachwordofthe passageisveryimportant.If youskip even oneword,you mightmissa bigpartofthe story!

Orderisimportant!

  • Alwayspayattentiontotheorderinwhich thingshappen.Be suretonotice wordslikefirst, next,then,andfinally.Itmay helptoreadthestoryagainand writeshortnotesoneacheventasithappens.This way youwillhavealistofthethingsthathappenintheircorrectorder!

Outsideofthetext,youwill findmore information.

  • Sometimesanswersarenot writtenoutword-for-wordinthestoryorarticle.You have tothinkoutsideof thewords.Whatdoesthatmean?! It meansmaking smartguesses!Thinkabout what thepassage doessayandthengo further.For example, areadingselectionaboutthelifeof Abraham LincolnmayonlylistthegoodthingshedidasPresident.Eventhoughthe selectiondoesnotsayitword-for-word,you can make asmartguessthatmanypeoplelikedPresident Lincoln.In other words,thereisn't asentenceintheselectionthat says"manypeoplelikedLincoln,"butyoucanbelieveitbecauseofthemanygoodthingsthatLincolndid.

Pay attentiontopurpose.

  • Thinkabout thereasonssomeonemightwritethe passageyouarereading.Doesthewriterwantyoutolearnsomething?Doesthe authorwanttoentertainyou?Ormaybe thewriteristryingtogetyoutothink likeheorshe thinks(persuadeor convince)?Beawareofwhattheauthoristryingtomakeyoufeel andthink.

Inferences andConclusions

Theauthorofapassagemaynottellyoueverythingdirectly.Someauthorsmay "show"somethingbyusingspecialdetails.As thereader,youhave to lookcarefullyandfindcluesin thestory.Then,youhavetouseyourknowledgeofreal lifeto makeguesses aboutwhatthecluesmean.

Lookforcluesin astorylikeadetective.

Tomakeinferencesandconclusions.. .

1.Read apassagecarefully.

2.Lookfordetailsabout whatapersondoes. What dotheperson'sactionstellyou?

3.Lookfordetailsthat describeaplaceorevent.Basedonreallife,whatdo those detailstellyou?

4.Make a guess(inferenceorconclusion)abouta characteroriteminthepassage.

5.Checktoseeifyou can findadetailorsentence thatledtoyour guess. If youcannotfindsomething tosupportyour guess,then yourguessmight bewrong.

Therearetwoways toanswerinferenceandconclusionquestions.Youcanmakeaguessorsupportaguess.

Examples:

Landonwasexcitedabouthismother'sbirthday.Heaskedhisolderbrother,Hunter,totakehim tothestoretobuyapresent.

"Sure,I'lltakeyoutothestoreanytime.Tellmewhatyouwouldlike to get,andI'lltake youtoastorethatsellsit."

"Iwanttogetherflowers.Shelovesthem,"Landonsaid.

"Great.I'lltakeyou totheflorist. Howmuchmoneydoyouhave?"Hunterasked.Landonfrowned."None.CanIborrowsomefrom you?"

"Sorry,littlebrother,"Hunter said."Mymoney'sgone.IwouldgiveyousomeifIhadany."

Landon satdown atthekitchen tableandputhischinon hishands.Helookedoutthewindowand triednottocry.Whatcouldhe do?Thenheknew.Throughthekitchenwindowhesawwildflowersinbloom.Hesawpink,white,andsometinybluesplashes.Hewouldjustmakeabouquetofflowersonhisown.Hecouldputtheflowersin ajarandpaintheartsonit.Hefeltbetterwhen hethought ofhowmuchhismomwouldloveherpresent.Hegot towork.

Makeaguess:

Usedetailsfromthepassagetomakeaninferenceorconclusion.

Question: / Frominformationin thestory,whatcanthereader concludeaboutLandon?
Think: / Look fordetailsin the storyaboutLandon.Hehas aproblemin the storybecausehedoesnot

Answer:Landoncansolveproblemsonhisown.

Supportaguess:

Thequestion belowgivesaninference orconclusion.Youhavetoshowthatitis correct.

Question: / How canthereader tellthatLandonandHunterhavea goodrelationship?
Think: / Lookin thestory fordetailsaboutLandon andHunter'srelationship.WhenLandonasksHuntertotake himtothestore, Hunteragrees.Hunter alsosaysthathewouldgiveLandonmoneyifhehadany.Youknowfromreallifethatpeoplewanttohelpothersiftheyhavea goodrelationshipwiththem.
Answer / HunteriswillingtohelpLandongetapresent.

Summarizing

CelebratingArborDay

Americanshaveastrongloveoftreesthatis alwaysgrowing.Eachyear,theUnitedStates celebratesArborDay.Thisnational holidaywas startedinNebraska.

Theholiday'sfounderwas JuliusSterlingMorton.Heoncesaid of ArborDay,"Otherholidays areaboutthepast; ArborDaydealswiththefuture."

Mortoncamewesttoplanttrees,justlikeJohnnyAppleseed.Heplantedtreesin Nebraska.Thesewouldhelpblockmightywindsontheplains.Theywouldalsohelptokeepthesoilmoist.Thetrees gavepeopleshade,lumber,fuel,andfood.Morton askedotherstogrowtreeswithhim.Hesuggestedthatonedayayearbesetaside to honortree-planting.Hisideacaughtonquickly.

In1872, thefirstcelebrationof ArborDaytook placein Nebraska.Overamillion treeswereplantedthatday.ArborDaybecamea state holiday inNebraska onApril22,1885.ItisalsoMorton'sbirthday.ArborDay iscelebrated ondifferentdatesin somestates. Itdependsonthebesttimetoplanttrees in eachstate.

Summary

ArborDaycelebratesthefuturebyplantingtreesin theU.S. Theholiday wasfoundedbyJulius MortoninNebraskain1872andiscelebratedinallofthestatesacrosstheU.S.today.

Theme

TheTortoiseandtheHare

Thereoncelivedatortoiseandahare.Theharebraggedthathewas sofasthecouldbeatanyone.Thetortoisesaidhewouldracehim.Theharestartedoutwayahead.Hethoughtitwouldtakethetortoisealongtimetocatchupwithhim.Hedecidedtotakealittlenap.Thetortoisedidnot stop.Hekeptmoving,slowlybutsurely.Whentheharewokeup,hesawthatthetortoisewasabout tocrossthefinishline.Hetriedtocatchup, but thetortoisebeathim.

Question:Whatisthethemein thisstory?

Answer:Slowandsteadywinstherace.

Explanation: Theauthordidnottellyouwhatthetheme isinthis story.Youhavetofigureit

out.Thetortoisewasvery slow,yethekeptgoingat asteadypaceandwontherace.The themeis, "Slowandsteadywins therace."

CharacterAnalysis

Whattraitsdoes thecharacterhave?

  • Atraitis aninterestingthingabout acharacter.It makesacharacterspecial.Atraitcouldbethewayacharacterlooksor acts.Wordslike"funny,""fast,""strong,"or"smart"describetraits.
  • Example:Freddieisatallboywithblackhair. Helikes toeatice cream.

Whatrelationshipsdoes thecharacterhave?

  • Arelationshipisaconnectionbetweenpeople.Thiscanmeancharactersarefriends,family,orschoolmates.
  • Example:BeaandCarolina aresisters.Theyarealsobestfriends.Theyalwaysdo everythingtogether.

Whydoes thecharacterdosomething?

  • Itisimportanttoknowwhycharactersdothings.Characterssometimes dothingsbecauseof howtheyfeel.

  • Example:Joe Bearkickedtheskateboardbecausehewasangry.

Whois tellingthestory?

  • Thenarratoristhe persontellingthestory.The point of viewistheviewofthenarrator. Heor shecan changehowthe readerseesthings. In the example below,thenarratorisabigsister.Shemakesthereader thinkthat thebabydoesnotlikeher.
  • Example:Mynewbabysister doesnotlikeme. Shealwayscrieswhen Itry toholdher.

Whatproblemdoes thecharacterhave?

  • Moststoriesareabouthowcharacterssolveaproblem.Lookforwhatcharactersinastoryarehavingtroublewith. Howdotheysolve theirproblems?
  • Example:Joey'sbikehasflattires. Hesolveshisproblembyputtingmore airinthem.

Howdoes thecharacterchange?

  • Sometimes,characterschangeina story.Anothercharacterinthestorymay changehowthemaincharacteracts.
  • Example:George didnotlikehisneighborKate.Sheneversaidhitohim. Oneday,Kate trippedandhurtherankle.George askedKateifshewasokayandhelpedhergetup. Now,George andKate are bestfriends.

Dialogue

Importantthings torememberaboutdialogue:

  • Thewordsacharacterspeaksare setapartbyquotationmarks"".
  • Thedialogue withinquotationmarksfollowsthe same rulesasregularsentences.Thefirstletterinthe sentenceshouldbecapitalized,andpropernouns,names,andwordslike"I"shouldalsobecapitalized.

example:

“Ilovehot chocolate!"Marsha toldRonald.

(I love hotchocolate are thewordsthatMarsha saidoutloud.)

  • Wordslike"said,""called,"or"replied" let the readerknowwho isspeakingin a story.Itisimportant topayattention towhateachcharactersays,especiallywhenthereismorethan one charactertalking.

example:

"Youhurtmyfeelingswhenyouyelledatme,"saidTony."I'm sorry!"Marcustold him."Ididnot meantohurtyou.""Great!"said Paul."Nowwecanallbefriendsagain."

  • Wordsspokenby acharacterin a storyarenot alwaysincomplete sentences.

example:

"What'sup?"Marioaskedhisfriend."Oh,nothing,"replied Tomas.

  • Slantedletters(calleditalicletters)indialogue can meanavarietyofthings.Usually,thecharacterspendsmoretime sayingthese words.Sometimeswritersuse slantedletterstoshowaword'simportance.Readerscan figureout whyawordisslantedbypayingclose attention tothestory.

example:

"Mysisterisalwaysonthephone,"groaned Hector.

  • Writerssometimesrepeat wordsand/orletters.Repeatingwordsshowstheimportanceofwhatisbeing

said.Repeatinglettersshowsthat acharacterisstuttering.Stutteringcanbeacluetothe character'sfeelings.

example:

"Whydoyoulook so frightened?" thespideraskedMaria."I'mjust sayinghello."

"S-s-s-s-spidersaren't supposedtotalk!"Mariacried."Youshouldn't beabletotalk!"

  • Sometimeswritersusealineofdots(. . .) toshowthatthecharactersarepausinglongerthantheyshouldbetweenwords.

example:

"I think. . .I'll takealittlenap,"yawnedSleepyBear.

  • Largedashes(—) canalsoappearindialogue.They usuallymeanthatacharactersuddenlystopstalkingforsome reason.

example:

"Iamrunningoutofsnowballs!"Ritatold her brother."Wait—okay,here are moresnowballsforyou,"hereplied.

PlotandSetting

Setting

Settingis thetimeandplacein whichastoryoccurs.Forexample,thesettingofTheLittleMermaidis thesea.

Plot

Theeventsofastoryarecalledtheplot.Plotis alsotheorder in whichtheauthorputstheeventsinastory.Forexample,hereis theplotof"TheThreeLittlePigs":

  • Threepigslefttheirhometofindtheirfortune.They eachbuiltahouse,because theyhadtohaveaplace to

live. Awolfcame and scared eachpig. Thewolfblewdownthefirsttwohousesbecause thepigshadnotdonea goodjobofbuildingthem.The wolfcouldnot blowdownthethirdpig'shousebecause thepig wasahardworkerand builtthehousetobestrong. Thethirdpiglivedhappilyeverafterbecausehe washard-working.

Conflict

Theconflictis theproblemin thestory.Whatis theconflictin "TheThreeLittlePigs"?Thewolf andthepigsarein conflictbecausethewolfchasesthepigs.Theconflictisresolvedoncethepigsgatherin thesafe,stronghouse.

Resolution

Theresolutionishowaproblem orconflictissolvedin astory.Thestoryusuallyendsafter themainconflictissolved.

examples:

  • Ateenagerdoesnothavethemoneyheneedstobuythe carhewants(conflict),sohegetsajobata restaurantandsavesuntilhefinallyhasenough(resolution).
  • Ayounggirlisfailinghermathclass(conflict),sohergrandfathertutorsher untilshe passesherclass(resolution).
CauseandEffect

Causeandeffecttakes placewhenonethingmakessomethingelsehappen.Thethingthathappensis

theeffect,andthereasonithappensis thecause.Withoutcauseandeffect,thingswouldhappeninstoriesfornoreasonatall,andtheevents wouldnotmakesense.

examples:

  • Agroupof hikersgetcaughtin a blizzard(cause),so theyhave tobuild a sheltertowaitoutthestorm (effect).
  • Elizaishungry(cause),soshemakesherselfasandwichtoeat (effect).

Imagery

Readthesentencein theboxbelow.Thinkabout thepicturesitputsinyourmind.

Itwouldhavebeeneasyfortheauthortowrite,"ThenoisefromthesteamvalvescaredEugene."However,this does nottellthereaderhowloud thevalveis.Bysayingthatitsquealsandthattheroomis"smoky,"thewriterpaintsaspookypictureforthereader.ItletsthereaderseehowcreepytheboilerroomisforEugene.

SimileandMetaphor

Simile

Asimileis whentwothings arecomparedbecausethey havesomethingincommon.ThewordASorLIKEisusedtocomparethetwowords.

examples:

Metaphor

Ametaphoralsocomparestwothings,butitdoesitmoredirectly.Itdoesnotusethewords"as"or"like."

examples:

Drama

DramaTerms

act

Anactis abigchunkofaplay.Itislikeachapterin abook.MostofShakespeare'splayshavefiveacts.

cast/characters / Aplaywill listthenamesofthecharactersneeded.Somelistswilleven givealittledescriptionofeachrole.Thelistofcharacters,or"cast,"isshownatthetopoftheplay.
dialogue / Dialogueis the wordsspokenbycharacters in aplay.
monologue / Alongspeechbyacharacterin aplay,spokeneithertoothersorasifthecharacterisalone.
offstage / Offthestage;outofviewoftheaudience.Whenacharactertalksoffstage, theaudiencecanhearbutnotseethecharacter.
onstage / Onthestage;in theviewoftheaudience.Inmostplays,thecharacterswillnotbeonstagethewholetime.Look forcluesin thestagedirectionstoseewhencertaincharactersenteronstage.
playwright / Peoplewhowriteplaysarecalledplaywrights.ThemostfamousplaywrightofalltimeisWilliamShakespeare.
scene / Asceneis asmall chunk ofaplay.Asceneusuallyhasjustoneevent,likeaconversationorafight.An actismadeup ofmanyscenes.
stagedirections / Stagedirectionstellactors howtomoveandspeak.Moststagedirectionsarein parentheses() and/orinitalics(slantedwords).Theycan alsotell youwheretheplayistakingplace.
stageset / Describeshowthestageshouldlook.Itgives thedirectoranideafordesigningtheset. Itgivestheaudienceabetterideaofwheretheplaytakesplace.

ExampleofaDrama

CHARACTERS:

Phil,leader ofthegroupShannon,whiny,hardtopleaseJanet,verysmartandwise

Les,fun-loving

Stageset:Stateparkcampsite

ActISceneI

SummerBreak

LES: / Let's goswimminginthelake.Itwill bemorefun,anditwillcoolus off.
PHIL: / (PattingLes ontheback)Greatidea!
SHANNON: / Ihopethewaterisnottoocold.Swimmingdoes soundbetterthanhiking,though.
JANET: / I'mallforit!

Poetry:Stanza,Meter, andRhythm

Stanza

Astanzais adivisionofapoem madebyarrangingthelinesintounitsseparatedbyaspace,usuallyofacorrespondingnumberoflines,andarecurrentpatternofmeterandrhyme.Apoemwithsuchdivisionsisdescribedashavingastanzaicform.Stanzas can alsobecalledverses.

Meter

Meteris therhythmicpatternofastanza,determinedbythekindandnumberoflines.Thenumber ofsyllablesineachlineofastanzacandeterminethemeter.

Rhythm

Rhythmis theregularor progressivepatternofrecurrentaccentsin theflow ofapoem.

Example

Thepoem belowis arhymedpoemwithtwostanzas.Therhymingwords arein bold,andthetextin redrepresentsoneofthetwostanzas.

MyFeetAreTooBig

byD.U.DerinoMyfeetaremuchtoobig,

Myfeetaremuchtoolong,

Alltheotherkids'feetarenormalMinejustdonotbelong.

MomsayswhenIamolder,Iwillgrowintomy feet,

ThenmaybeIwillbethetallestkid,Thatwouldbesupersweet!

RhymeSchemes

Rhymingwords arewordsthatsoundthesameattheends,suchascat/hat, orjumping/bumping.

Whena poemhasrhymingwordsattheendsoflines,thesearecalled“endrhymes.”Hereisanexampleofendrhyme:

Mycatis nice.Mycatlikesmice.

A“rhymescheme”is a wayofdescribingthepatternofendrhymesin apoem.Eachnewsoundattheendofalineisgivenaletter, startingwith“A,”then“B,”andsoon.Ifanendsoundrepeatstheendsound of anearlierline,itgetsthesameletter astheearlierline.

Herearethreeslightlydifferentcatpoems,eachwithadifferentrhymescheme.ThefirstisAABB,thesecondisABAB,andthethirdisABCB):

Mycatisnice.A

Mycatlikesmice.A

Mycatisfat.B

Ilikemy cat.B

Mycatis nice.A

Mycatisfat.B

Mycatlikesmice.A

Ilikemycat.B

Mycatisgray.A

Mycatisfat.B

Mycatiscute.C

Ilikemycat.B

Genres

Fiction

Fictional storiesaremadeupbyawriter.Thesestoriesareusuallywrittenin sentencesandparagraphs.Sincetheyaremadeupbythewriter,many fictionstorieshaveeventsor charactersthatcouldnothappenin reallife.Forexample,atalkingdogwouldbea goodcluethatthestory youarereadingisfictional!

Therearemanydifferentkindsof fictionstories.Fables,fairytales,talltales,andfolktalesaresomeexamplesof fictionstories.Poemsanddramas arekindsofwritingthatcanbeeitherfictionornonfiction.

  • Amythisastorypeople madeuptoexplain abelief orsomethinginnature. For example,amythmighttrytoexplainwhytheskyisbluethroughaninterestingstory.
  • Anovelisafictionalstorywritteninprosethatisof considerablelength.Itsgreatlengthallowsittohavemultiple characters,plotlines,andshiftsinpointsof view.Anovelisoftenbrokenup bychapters, whichiswhyitisalsoknownasa chapterbook. Onetypeof novelisayoung adultnovel,which isaimedatpeople betweentheageof13 and 18.
  • Ashortstoryiswritteninsentencesandparagraphs.Itusuallyhasfewerthan10,000 words.Itsshortlengthallowsittobereadinone sitting.
  • Historical fictionisafictionalstorythatisbasedon a time,event,orseriesofeventsthathavetakenplaceinhistory. Theplayersorcharactersinthestoryare either entirelyfictional,ortheyarebasedonarealperson orpersonsinhistory.ThenovelJohnny Tremainisanexampleof historical fictionbecauseitisaboutayoungboywhogetscaughtupintheAmericanRevolution.
  • Amystery/suspensestoryputsthecharacterinchargeofsolving acrimeorfiguringout what'sgoingon.TheoldSherlockHolmesseriesis anexampleofmystery/suspense.
  • Science fictionisastoryaboutthefuture,basedonguessesofhowtheauthorthinksthefuturewillbe. Mostscience-fictionstoriesfocusonthemeslikeouterspace,technology,andtime travel.
  • Fablesareshort,moralstoriesthattrytoteachalesson.Fablesoftenhave animalsascharacters.

example:

Thekingwasalwaysmeantothedragon.Oneday,thekinggotlost.Thedragon helpedhimgethome.

Thekinglearnednottobemeantoothers.

  • Folktalesarestoriesthatusemade-upeventstoexplainwhy orhowsomethinghappened.These storiesareusuallyhanded downfromearliertimes,and theycannotbe provedtrueoruntrue.Sometimes,afolktale isalsocalledalegend.

example:

Thehorsedidnotalwayshavealongnose.Oneday,ahorsesneezedsohard,hisnosegrewverylong.

Eversincethatday,horseshavevery longnoses.

  • Legendsaresemi-true stories,thathavebeenpassedon frompersontopersonandhaveimportantmeaningorsymbolismforthecultureinwhichthey originate.Alegend usually includesanelementof truth,orisbased onhistoricfacts, butwith "mythical qualities."Legendsusuallyinvolveheroic charactersorfantastic placesandoftenencompassthe spiritualbeliefsofthecultureinwhichtheyoriginate.

example:

Atlantisis alostcontinent.ItsankbeneaththeAtlanticOceanthousandsofyears ago.

Atlantisisfull oftreasureandriches.

Poetry

Poetrylooksdifferentthanotherkindsofwriting.Poetryisoftenwritteninshortlines.Thelinesinapoemoftenrhyme.Sometimeseverylinebeginswithacapital letter.

example:

TeddyBear

byJ.Robbins

IhaveateddybearnamedPooh;Westicktogetherjustlikeglue;

IplaywithPoohBearinthepark;Hehelpsmesleepwhenitis dark.

Drama

Dramas arewritten forpeopletoactout.Playsandskits aretwoexamplesofdramas.Dramaslookdifferentfromotherkindsofwriting.Thecharacter'snamesarewrittenout,andthewordstheyspeakarewrittenbesidethem.Dramasalsohavespecial instructionsthattell youwhatthestagelookslikeandhowthecharactersshouldlookor act.

Nonfiction

Nonfictionis akindofwritingthatgivesfactsandtrueinformation.Nonfiction tellsyouaboutsomethingthatreallyhappened.Biographiesareexamplesof nonfictionwriting.

  • Anautobiographyisapieceofwritingthataperson writesabouthisorherown life.Autobiographiesarewrittenusingwordslike"I,""me,""us,"and"we."Ifyouwrote astoryaboutyourown life,youwouldbewritinganautobiography.

Abiographyisapieceofwritingabout arealperson'slife.Abiographyiswrittenbysomeoneotherthanthe

personwhoselifeisbeingdescribed.If youwere towriteabookaboutthelifeof AbrahamLincoln,youwould bewritinga biography.

  • Anessayisashortpieceof informational writingon asingle subject.Itusuallypresentsapersonal viewoftheauthor.Essayscanbepersonalorpersuasive (showanopinion).

Author'sAttitude

Areadercanfindoutwhatawriter thinksbylookingforopinions.

Mostwriterschoosewordsthatwillhelpthereadersknowwhattheythink.Tofindoutwhat thewriter thinksaboutsomething,look for opinionsfromthewriter.

Herearesome wordsandphrasesto lookfor:

  • Ithink. . .
  • I feel. . .
  • Ibelieve . . .
  • should
  • best
  • worst
  • ought to
  • in myopinion

example:

ScottishTerriers

Scottishterriersarethecutestdogsin theworld! I thinkeveryoneshouldownaScottish terrier.Somepeoplecallthem"Scotties"forshort.Scotties aresmartanimalsthatlearn easily.Theyareeasytotakecareof.SomeU.S.presidentshaveownedthem.Ifpresidentshaveownedthem,thenthey mustbe gooddogs.Thatisgoodenoughforme!

Question1:Whichofthefollowingsentenceswouldthewritermostlikelyagreewith?

A.Scottieslove people.

B.Scottiesareveryugly.

C.Scottiesmakegood pets.

D.Scottiesarefriendly.

Explanation:Theparagraph saysthatifpresidentshaveownedScotties,thenthey mustbe gooddogs.Thismakes thewriterfeelScottiesmake goodpets.ThecorrectanswerisC.

AuthorBias

Bias ispreferringsomethingorplayingfavorites.Theoppositeofbeingbiasedisbeingobjective.Apersonwhoisbeingobjectiveisnotinfluencedbyprejudice orbias.Beingobjectiveincludesthe waythepersonrelates tootherpeople.Thinkabouthowafamilymembermightdescribeyou.Nowthinkabouthowyourteacher,afriend,orastrangermightdescribeyou.Theywillallhavedifferentthings tosaybased on theiroutlook.

example:

  • Yourmomordad might say,"Mykidisthesmartestkidinschool andthe bestkidinsports."

Wemustalsothinkaboutbeliefs andages.

example:

  • Amothermightnotlikeamoviebecauseithadtoomuchactionandexplosions,buther son mightloveit. Ifeachpersonweretodescribethemovietoyou,thesonwouldprobablyuse wordslike"exciting"and"awesome."Themothermightsay itwas"disturbing"or"inappropriate." Think about theiragesandoutlooksandhowtheymight affect theiropinions.

Peopleconstantlyoffertheiropinions,evenwhenreadersmightnotrealizeit.Justbydescribingascene oraneventacertainway,peoplecanaffectthe wayothersseethings.Canyouthinkoftimesyoumighthavedonethisbyexaggerating?

examples:

  • Thetest wassounfair.Istudiedforeverand stillonlygot aC.
  • Dad, do I havetogotothedentist? Itissoscarythere!Themachinesare big enough tofillourhouse,andthedoctorismean.And I thinkthetoothpastetheyusetasteslikesand.

NarratorandSpeaker

Toidentifyanddescribethespeakerornarrator,areadermustfindoutwhoistellingthestory.Thespeakeristhevoicethat"talks" tothereader.Heorsheisnotnecessarilytheauthorofastoryorpoem.Itcouldbeacharacterthattheauthormadeuptotellthestory.Italsocouldbesimplyanall-knowingspeakerthatrelatesthestorytothereader.

Thenarratoras acharacter:Thespeakercanbesomeoneinthestorywhotells the storyfrom hisorherpointofview.Whenthenarratoris acharacterin thestory,sometimesanothercharactersays thespeaker'sname.Thespeakerusuallyuses words like"I," "me,"and"we"to showthatapersonfromthestoryispersonally experiencingtheaction.Whenthe authorhasoneofthecharactersin thestorynarratetheevents,itgives thereaderacloseconnection totheevents.

Theunnamednarrator:Sometimes,thenarratorwon'tbenamedin thestoriesyouread.Whenthis

happens,itmaybebecausethestoryor poemistoldfromthepointofview ofsomeoneall-knowing.Heorsheknowsallofthecharacters'thoughtsandactions.Thespeakercanbeapartofthestoryorpoem,orthespeakercanjusttellthestory.

Whenthespeakerdoesn'tactorspeaktotheother characters,thespeakeris avoiceoutside ofthe storyaction.Heorsheusuallyuses words like"he," "she,""it,"and"they."

PointofView

FirstPerson

Firstperson pointofviewusesI orwe.Firstpersonis oftenusedwhensomeoneisstatinganopinionorsharingafeeling.

example:

IjumpedforjoywhenI gotanewbikeformybirthday!

SecondPerson

Secondpersonpointofviewuses thewordyou.Secondpersonis a goodchoicewhengivingdirectionsoranytimeyouarespeakingdirectlytosomeone.Secondpersonisalmostneverusedtotellastory.example:

Youneedtobringanotebookandapencil to class.

ThirdPerson

Thirdperson pointofviewuses he,she,orthey. Sometimesitisusedwhentalkingaboutathinginsteadofaperson.

example:

Jamal sangthemostbeautiful songatthetalentshow, andhewonfirstplace.

Illustrations

17

Herearesomequestions tothinkaboutwhenyoureadfromabookorstorythatincludesillustrations,drawings,pictures,orimages:

  • Whywasthispicturechosento illustratethestory?
  • Whatdoyouthinkofwhenyouseeit?
  • Doesitmake thestorybetter?Doesitmakethestoryworse?
  • Whatcolorsarethereinthepicture?Dothecolorsshowthatthestory isahappystoryor asadstory? Howdothecolorsmakeyoufeel? Are theybrightand cheerfulor darkand gloomy?
  • Haveyou seenthepicture before somewhere else?Ifyouhave,whatdoyouremember aboutit?
  • Whichpartsfrom thestoryareillustrated?
  • Howdetailedisthepicture compared tothestory? Didtheartistleaveout anythingthe authortriedtomakeimportant?

example:

Inthefollowingillustration,abearrunsawayfromagroupofbees.Theillustratorshowsthatthebearisangry.Thebear'seyebrowspointdown,andthemouthis turneddownlikeafrown.Anillustrationhelps thereaderpicturewhathappensin thestory.

Graphics

RoadMaps

Aroadmaphelptravelersfindtheirwayfromoneplaceto another.Someroadmaps showonlymainhighways.Others showsmallerroads.

DowntownFriendlyville

BarGraphs

Abargraphshowsinformationusingbars.

PictureGraphs

Apicturegraphshows information usingpictures.

PieGraphs

Apiegraphshows howthesizesofthe partscomparetoeachotherandthewhole.

Tables

Atableis a waytoorganizeinformationinboxesusingrowsandcolumns.Thefirstcolumnis themainsubjectofthetable.Theothercolumnsgivemoreinformationaboutthesubjectin thefirstcolumn.Eachrowhasalltheinformationfor onesubject.Seeanexampleofatablebelow.Itgivesinformationaboutdifferentstudents inaclass.

Schedules

Aschedulesshows whatisgoingtohappenorwhatneeds tohappenatacertaintime.

Dance DaySchedule
Event / Time
Breakfast / 8:00-9:00am
BeginningSalsaDance / 9:15-10:25am
Contras DanceBandWorkshop / 10:40-11:50am
Dance DaySchedule
Round-up(news,fun andgames) / 12:00-12:45pm
Lunch / 12:45-1:30pm
Swimming / 1:30-2:30pm
Dance Party / 3:00-6:00pm
Dinner / 6:05-7:00pm
Diagrams

Adiagramsis adrawingorplan.Itoutlinesandexplains thepartsofsomething.

WebDiagrams

Awebdiagramishelpfulwhenyouwanttoseewhatthemainideasanddetailsofaparagraphare.Writersalsousewebdiagramsto helpthemarrangetheirideas.Inawebdiagram,thecentercircletells thetopicoftheparagraph.Thecirclesconnectedtothecenter circlegivedetails aboutthetopic.

VennDiagrams

AVenndiagramismadeup ofoverlappingcircles.Inthis example,theshadedareaiswherethecirclesoverlap.Each circleislabeledontheoutsidewithatopic.Insideeachcircle,facts arelistedforthe

topics.Factsaretruestatementsaboutatopic.Whenafactislistedin theoverlappingarea ofthecircles,thismeans thefactistrueforbothtopics.Seeexamplebelow.

CompareandContrast

Question:Howarethethingsin thesepicturesalikeanddifferent?

Answer:Thehats both haveblackribbons.Thedogs aredifferentcolors.

Compare=Similarities

Look forwordslike.. .

  • similar
  • in thesameway
  • likewise
  • justlike
  • aswell
  • in addition

Contrast=Differences

Look forwordslike.. .

  • different
  • in contrast

  • ontheotherhand
  • however
  • onthecontrary
  • instead
  • although
  • but

Readthestory,and trythesamplequestionsthatfollows:

FriarWoods

FriarWoodsis anice,quietplace.Somemightcallita"neighborhood."Allthe animalstalktoeachother. Theyworktogether,andtheyplaytogether.Theyalsoprotecteachotherfromharm.LeotheLionisknownas thefighter.HewillfightanyintruderthatcomesintoFriarWoodswithoutaninvitation.Heworksreally hardduringthe dayandsleepssoundlyatnight.OttotheOwlhootswhendangerisnear.Ottosleepsalldayandis upallnight.FriarWoodsisalwaysunderawatchfuleye.Theanimalstakecareofeachotherandliveinharmony.

1.WhatissimilaraboutLeoandOtto(compare)?Answer:LeoandOttobothlivein FriarWoods.

2.HowareLeoandOttodifferent(contrast)?

Answer:Leosleepsatnight,andOttosleeps duringtheday.

READINGSTANDARDSFORINFORMATION

MainIdea

Whenyouarelookingforthemainidea ofapassage,askyourself .. .

  • Whydidtheauthor writethispassage?
  • Whatisthepassagemostlyabout?

Whenyouthinkyouknowwhatthemainideais,askyourself...

  • Doallof thesentencesinthepassagesupportthisidea?

Iftheanswerisyes,youhavefoundthemainidea.Remember,themainideaismoredetailed,orspecific,thanatopic.Forexample,youmightreadapassageaboutthetelevision-watchinghabitsofchildren.Thatisthetopic.Themainideawouldbemorespecific,like"Childrentodayarewatchingtwiceasmuchtelevisiononaveragethanchildrenwerewatchingfiveyearsago."Thesentencesinthepassagewouldsupportthismainideabyexplainingthispoint.Onesupportingdetailmightbethenumberofhoursoftelevision childrenwatchedfiveyears ago.

Trytofindthemainidea ofthepassagebelow:

Thinkaboutanyfireworks display you'veeverseen.Prettycool,right?Well,thoseshows arenothingcomparedtonature'slightshow. TheNorthern Lights,alsocalledAuroraBorealis,canbeseenalmostanydayoftheyearsomewherein theworld.AurorasareacombinationofwindfromtheSunandtheEarth'smagnet-likeatmosphere.Whentheycometogether,theresultis abeautifullightshow.Aurorascanonlybeseenbyhumaneyesatnight.PlacesneartheNorthPolearethebesttoviewAuroraBorealis.EasternCanadaandAlaskaare goodareasnearthePole.

Whatis themainideaofthis passage?

ThispassageisabouttheNorthernLights,or AuroraBorealis.Itexplainshowtheyhappen andwheretheycanbeseen.AuroraBorealisis abeautiful natural lightshow.Thatis themainideaofthis passage.Theothersentencesinthepassagesupportthisidea.

FollowingInstructions

1.Whichchoicebelowisaninstruction?

A.Add 2 cupsofmilk.

B.Ineed 2cupsofmilk.

C.Wherearethe2 cupsofmilk?

D.Milk isgoodforyourbones.

SampleQuestions

Explanation:ThecorrectanswerisA."Add2cupsofmilk"isaninstruction.Itisalsocalledacommand.Theotherchoices arestatementsandaquestion.Theyarenotinstructions.

BeachFun Sunscreen

Directions:Useallyearround.Putalargeamounton youruncoveredskinbeforegoingoutinthesun.Makesuretospread this sunscreen evenly.Putonthesunscreenagainafterswimmingorsweating.

Caution:For useonskin only.Donotgetitin theeyes.Ifitgetsin theeyes,rinsewithwater. Ifrashappears,stopuse.

2.WhenshouldyouputonBeachFunSunscreen?

A.aftergetting askinrash

B.before goingoutinthesun

C.before ridingout tothebeach

D.aftertakinganevening shower

Explanation:ThecorrectanswerisB.Youshouldput onthesunscreenbeforegoingoutin thesun.Thedirectionsalsosayto useitafteryouswimorsweat.Knowingwhentodosomethingisimportant. This willhelpyouusetheproductsuccessfully.Sometimesdirectionstell youwhatnottodo.Followingtheseinstructionsisalsoimportant.

CauseandEffect

Acauseiswhysomethinghappens.

Aneffectiswhathappensbecauseofthatcause.

Whenyouread,lookforcause-and-effectrelationships.Thinkaboutthesequestions:

  • Doesthispassage tellyouwhysomethinghappens?
  • Doesthiseventcause somethingelse to happen?
  • Isthecharacterdoingthisbecause ofsomethingthathappened?

Readthepassagebelowandlook forthecause-and-effectrelationships.

Manyyearsago,agroupofpeoplecalledtheHuns attackedChina.TheHuns wantedtoconquertheChinese.BecausetheChinesewantedtoprotectthemselves,they builtahugewall.This wallwas 1,500mileslong.As aresultofthiswall,theHunswerekeptoutofChina.ThisGreatWallofChinaisstillstandingtoday.

Thiswriterusescauseandeffect.Think:"Whathappened?"Answer:TheChinesebuiltawall.Thisis theeffect.

Think:"Whydidtheybuildthewall?"

Answer:TokeeptheHunsout.Thisis thecause.

Theclue words "because"and"asaresult"helpus answerthesequestions.

TextOrganization

ChronologicalOrder

Thewriterplaces eventsin theorderin whichtheyoccur.Lookforthefollowingwords andphrases.

  • first
  • then
  • finally
  • afewminuteslater
  • next
  • afterlunch
  • lastyear

example:

  • Mr. Cartercarriednewbooksintohisclassroom.Then,he counted allthebooks.Next,hewillpassoutthebooks tohisstudents.Finally,hewilltellhisstudentswhichpages toreadfortomorrow.

Compare/Contrast

Thetextshowshowideasor thingsarealikeor different.Lookforthefollowingwords.

  • best
  • more
  • better
  • less
  • worse
  • easier
  • than

example:

  • Brandonplaysmore sportsthan hissister Jackiedoes. Brandon'smusclesarestronger thanJackie'smuscles.

CauseandEffect

Thetextshowsthatoneeventcausesanother thingtohappen.Look forthefollowingwords andphrases.

  • because
  • then
  • since
  • asaresult

example:

  • Thegrassin ouryardis tallandgreenbecauseitrained alotlastweek.

Pro/Con

Thetextisdividedintotwoparts:onepart tellsyouwhysomethingis good,andtheotherpart tellsyouwhysomethingisbad.Lookforthefollowingwordsandphrases.

  • however
  • ontheotherhand

example:

  • Playinganinstrumentinthebandcanbeveryrewardingandfun. You can learnalotaboutmusic andrhythm. You can make manynewfriendsinthe band.However,playing abandinstrumentcanalsobeverycostly.You willneedtospendtime practicingyourmusic.Buyinganinstrument andsuppliesforyourinstrument costsalotof money.

Problem/Solution

Thetextisdividedintotwoparts.Onepartpresentsaproblem,andtheotherpartgives thesolutiontotheproblem.Lookforthefollowingwords.

  • problem
  • solution
  • solve
  • plan

example:

  • Yost City officialshaveannouncedthatthe cityhasrun outofmoneytogivetothe publiclibrary.Thismaycause thelibrarytocloselaterthisyear.Manycitizenswho hopetosolve thisproblemhavecome

together.Theybelieve thesolutionis toraisemoneyforthelibrarythemselves.Theyplantohavegaragesalesand bake salesandgivethemoneytheymaketothelibrary.

Theproblem inthepassageabovecanbesummedupbythisquestion:

Howcanthepubliclibrarygetenoughmoneytostayopen?

Thesolution:

Citizenswillhavegaragesalesandbakesales totrytomakeenoughmoneyforthelibrary.

SupportingSentences

example:

Mexico:TheOldandNew

(1)Mexicooffersvisitorsaworldofcontrasts.(2)Its pyramidsandancientruins arepartofancienthistory,whileitsmoderncitiesprovideus withthebestoftoday'stechnology.(3)Its mountainsoffercoolweatherandrockypeaks,while onlyafewmilesaway,itsbeachestemptus withwarmsunandwhitesand.(4)Itsfancyrestaurants servethemostsophisticatedcontinentalcuisine,whilesidewalkvendorssellthesimplestofnativefoods.

Sentence1statesthemainideaoftheparagraph.

  • Themain ideaisthatMexico hasmany examplesof contrasts(differences).

Sentences 2through4aresupportingsentences.

  • Theancientpyramidsandthemoderncitiesare anexampleofcontrast.
  • Thecool mountainsareincontrasttothewarmbeaches.
  • Thefancyrestaurantsstandincontrasttothesimplefoodsoldbyvendors.

IntroductionsandConclusions

Introduction

Theintroductionsetsthetonefor therestof your story,paper,or report.Theintroductionwillestablishyourtopicforyouraudience.Agoodintroduction cangettheaudienceinterestedin whatyouhavetosay.Abadintroduction canlosetheaudience'sattention.One waytoeaseyouraudienceintoyourintroductionis touseintroductorystatements.Thesearestatementsthatcanaskquestions,stateopinions,presentarguments,tellastory,orgivebackgroundinformation.

Herearesomewordsandphrasesyoucanuseinintroductorystatements:

  • atthepresenttime
  • currently
  • first
  • in thebeginning
  • rightnow
  • tobegin with

Herearesomeexamplesofintroductorystatements:

  • At thepresenttime, thereisno cureforthisillness.
  • Currently,thedefinitionforabuseis thephysicaloremotionalmistreatmentofothers.
  • Inthebeginning,thecrimerateforthecitywas too high to ignore.
  • Tobegin with,theideathatteensneedpart-timejobsisridiculous.

Conclusion

Theconclusionbringseverythinginyourwritingtoanaturalend.Yourconclusionwillwrapupyourpaperwithoutofferinganynewevidence orinformation.Agoodconclusionwill tieeverythingfromthe

introductionandbodytogether,anditwillgetyouraudiencetothinkaboutwhatyouhavesaid.Concludingstatementsworkin thesame wayasintroductorystatements.Concludingstatementscanrestatethemainpointorargumentofyourpaper,recommendactionsorsolutions,predictthefuture,or useaquotation.

Herearesomewordsandphrasesyoucanuseinconcludingstatements:

  • asIhave demonstrated
  • finally
  • in conclusion
  • inshort
  • lastly
  • therefore
  • tosumup
  • tosummarize

Hereareexamplesofconcludingstatements:

  • Finally,for usto continuetosupporttheseatbeltlawcanonlybebeneficial.
  • Inconclusion,Ibelievetheonlywayto achievepeaceisthroughactivediscussions.
  • Inshort,thetestisridiculousbecauseit'snot currentanditdoesn'tofferanyrealbenefits.
  • Tosumup, cooperationisthekeybecause as BenFranklinsaid,"Asmallleakcansinkagreatship."

Logical Order

ChronologicalOrder

Withthehelp of"clue" words,youcaneasilyunderstandthecorrectorderofastory.

  • First:Thiswordisacluethatthe sentence should start thingsoff.Remember,itdoesn'thavetobethefirstwordinthesentence.
  • Next:Thiswordisacluethatsomethingcame beforeit. Asentence with thisword couldbesecond,third, orfourth. You willhavetorely on informationintheothersentencestodecide.
  • Third,Fourth, Fifth:Thesearegreatcluewordsthattell youexactlywhatordertheeventshappened.
  • Finally:Thisisaclue word thattellsyouthisisoneofthelast sentencesinthestory.Itshoulddescribethelasteventthat happenedin asequence.

TopicOrder

Writersuselogicalorder tohelpexplaintheirideas.Eachsentenceandparagraphmustbeplacedinawaythatmakessense.Topicsshouldbeclearandfollowedbyexamplesanddetails.Althoughthesepassagesarenotinsequence,theystillusecluewordstoguidethereaders.Theseclue words ortransitionwordsletthereadersknowwhatisnext.Thesewordsmayincludehowever,forexample,andsimilarly.Anotherpart oflogicalorder

is aconclusion.Aconclusionis aparagraphor sentencethatwraps upthepassage.Aconclusionmayansweranyquestionsthatthereader mighthave

Example
  • (1) OnFriday,ourfirst dayof camp, wewentfishingatthelake.(2) Afterwecaughtfourfish, wedecidedtohike totheothersideofthecamp.(3) While wewere swimming, myfriendJudeheldhisbreath for threeminutesunderwater!(4)Wesangsongsaroundthecampfireon ourlastnightofcamp.(5) OnSundaymorning,wepacked up our gearandboarded thebusesbackhome.(6) OnSaturdaymorning, we rodepaddleboatsandwent swimming.

Question:Whichsentencein this passageisin thewrongplace?

A.sentence6

B.sentence3

C.sentence1

D.sentence2

Answer:Sentence6isnotthefinal eventin thechronologicalstory.Sentence6shouldbeplacedbeforesentence3.Sentence3describeswhatJudedidwhilethe group wentswimming.Also,ifthespeakerleftcamp onSunday,thenthegroupmusthavesangsongs onSaturdaynight.

TransitionsandFlow

Types ofTransitions

SignalTime orSequence

Use words suchasthese:first,second,finally,last,next,afterward,after,earlier,during,while,before,then,previously,now,until.

example:

  • Earlier,mymotherwasatwork. Nowsheisathome.
SignalAdditionalInformation

Use words suchasthese:in addition,furthermore,moreover,and,also,another.