4thGradeELA2015GEORGIA MILESTONESSTUDYGUIDE
TableofContents:
Skill / Page# / Skill / Page# / Skill / Page#
Readingcomprehension / 1 / Introductionsandconclusions / 27 / Comparativesandsuperlatives / 52
Inferencesandconclusions / 2 / Logicalorder / 28 / Capitalization / 54
Summarizing / 3 / Transitionandflow / 29 / Spelling / 56
Theme / 4 / Headings / 31 / Multiplemeaningwords / 58
Characteranalysis / 4 / Captions / 32 / Contextclues / 59
Dialogue / 5 / Preciselanguage / 33 / Affixes / 59
Plotandsetting / 6 / Appropriatelanguageandwritingpurpose / 34 / Dictionaryuse / 61
Imagery / 7 / Prewriting / 35 / Thesaurususe / 64
Simileandmetaphor / 8 / Narrowingdownatopic / 38 / Glossaryuse / 65
Drama / 8 / Revisingandproofreading / 38 / Idioms / 67
Poetry: Stanza,Meter,Rhythm / 10 / Proofreadingandediting / 40 / Adagesandproverbs / 67
RhymeScheme / 11 / Resources / 40 / Synonymsandantonyms / 68
Genre / 11 / Typesof researchresources / 40 / Pronoun-antecedentagreement / 69
Author’sattitude / 14 / Reliablesources / 41 / Subject-verbagreement / 71
Authorbias / 15 / Makingconnections / 42 / Prepositions / 73
Narratorandspeaker / 15 / Paraphrasing / 42 / Typesof Sentences / 74
Pointofview / 16 / Takingnotes / 43 / SubjectPredicate / 74
Illustrations / 16 / Citingsources / 43 / DependentIndependentClauses / 75
Graphics / 17 / Conjunctions / 46 / Nouns / 75
Compareandcontrast / 21 / Prepositions / 47 / Pronouns / 75
Mainidea / 22 / Interjections / 48 / UseyourStudyGuideCalendareachnight!!
Followinginstructions / 23 / Verbtenses / 48
Causeandeffect / 24 / Irregularverbs / 50
Textorganization / 25 / Troublesomeverbs / 50
Supportingsentences / 26 / Adjectivesandadverbs / 51
READINGSTANDARDSFORLITERATURE
ReadingComprehension
Searchfortheanswerinthestory.
- Afteryoureadastoryorarticle,you mightwant togoback toit—especiallyifyouhaveaquestionover acertainpart. Sometimestheansweriswrittenword-for-wordinthepassage.Justonesentenceor oneword canansweraquestion. Youjusthavetosearchand dig! Bepatient!
Neverskipaword.
- You canoftenfigureout themeaningofwordsyou don'tknow byusingotherwordsasclues.Also,usewhatyouknowaboutroot words,prefixes,andsuffixestohelpyoufigureout meanings!Eachwordofthe passageisveryimportant.If youskip even oneword,you mightmissa bigpartofthe story!
Orderisimportant!
- Alwayspayattentiontotheorderinwhich thingshappen.Be suretonotice wordslikefirst, next,then,andfinally.Itmay helptoreadthestoryagainand writeshortnotesoneacheventasithappens.This way youwillhavealistofthethingsthathappenintheircorrectorder!
Outsideofthetext,youwill findmore information.
- Sometimesanswersarenot writtenoutword-for-wordinthestoryorarticle.You have tothinkoutsideof thewords.Whatdoesthatmean?! It meansmaking smartguesses!Thinkabout what thepassage doessayandthengo further.For example, areadingselectionaboutthelifeof Abraham LincolnmayonlylistthegoodthingshedidasPresident.Eventhoughthe selectiondoesnotsayitword-for-word,you can make asmartguessthatmanypeoplelikedPresident Lincoln.In other words,thereisn't asentenceintheselectionthat says"manypeoplelikedLincoln,"butyoucanbelieveitbecauseofthemanygoodthingsthatLincolndid.
Pay attentiontopurpose.
- Thinkabout thereasonssomeonemightwritethe passageyouarereading.Doesthewriterwantyoutolearnsomething?Doesthe authorwanttoentertainyou?Ormaybe thewriteristryingtogetyoutothink likeheorshe thinks(persuadeor convince)?Beawareofwhattheauthoristryingtomakeyoufeel andthink.
Inferences andConclusions
Theauthorofapassagemaynottellyoueverythingdirectly.Someauthorsmay "show"somethingbyusingspecialdetails.As thereader,youhave to lookcarefullyandfindcluesin thestory.Then,youhavetouseyourknowledgeofreal lifeto makeguesses aboutwhatthecluesmean.
Lookforcluesin astorylikeadetective.
Tomakeinferencesandconclusions.. .
1.Read apassagecarefully.
2.Lookfordetailsabout whatapersondoes. What dotheperson'sactionstellyou?
3.Lookfordetailsthat describeaplaceorevent.Basedonreallife,whatdo those detailstellyou?
4.Make a guess(inferenceorconclusion)abouta characteroriteminthepassage.
5.Checktoseeifyou can findadetailorsentence thatledtoyour guess. If youcannotfindsomething tosupportyour guess,then yourguessmight bewrong.
Therearetwoways toanswerinferenceandconclusionquestions.Youcanmakeaguessorsupportaguess.
Examples:
Landonwasexcitedabouthismother'sbirthday.Heaskedhisolderbrother,Hunter,totakehim tothestoretobuyapresent.
"Sure,I'lltakeyoutothestoreanytime.Tellmewhatyouwouldlike to get,andI'lltake youtoastorethatsellsit."
"Iwanttogetherflowers.Shelovesthem,"Landonsaid.
"Great.I'lltakeyou totheflorist. Howmuchmoneydoyouhave?"Hunterasked.Landonfrowned."None.CanIborrowsomefrom you?"
"Sorry,littlebrother,"Hunter said."Mymoney'sgone.IwouldgiveyousomeifIhadany."
Landon satdown atthekitchen tableandputhischinon hishands.Helookedoutthewindowand triednottocry.Whatcouldhe do?Thenheknew.Throughthekitchenwindowhesawwildflowersinbloom.Hesawpink,white,andsometinybluesplashes.Hewouldjustmakeabouquetofflowersonhisown.Hecouldputtheflowersin ajarandpaintheartsonit.Hefeltbetterwhen hethought ofhowmuchhismomwouldloveherpresent.Hegot towork.
Makeaguess:
Usedetailsfromthepassagetomakeaninferenceorconclusion.
Question: / Frominformationin thestory,whatcanthereader concludeaboutLandon?Think: / Look fordetailsin the storyaboutLandon.Hehas aproblemin the storybecausehedoesnot
Answer:Landoncansolveproblemsonhisown.
Supportaguess:
Thequestion belowgivesaninference orconclusion.Youhavetoshowthatitis correct.
Question: / How canthereader tellthatLandonandHunterhavea goodrelationship?Think: / Lookin thestory fordetailsaboutLandon andHunter'srelationship.WhenLandonasksHuntertotake himtothestore, Hunteragrees.Hunter alsosaysthathewouldgiveLandonmoneyifhehadany.Youknowfromreallifethatpeoplewanttohelpothersiftheyhavea goodrelationshipwiththem.
Answer / HunteriswillingtohelpLandongetapresent.
Summarizing
CelebratingArborDay
Americanshaveastrongloveoftreesthatis alwaysgrowing.Eachyear,theUnitedStates celebratesArborDay.Thisnational holidaywas startedinNebraska.
Theholiday'sfounderwas JuliusSterlingMorton.Heoncesaid of ArborDay,"Otherholidays areaboutthepast; ArborDaydealswiththefuture."
Mortoncamewesttoplanttrees,justlikeJohnnyAppleseed.Heplantedtreesin Nebraska.Thesewouldhelpblockmightywindsontheplains.Theywouldalsohelptokeepthesoilmoist.Thetrees gavepeopleshade,lumber,fuel,andfood.Morton askedotherstogrowtreeswithhim.Hesuggestedthatonedayayearbesetaside to honortree-planting.Hisideacaughtonquickly.
In1872, thefirstcelebrationof ArborDaytook placein Nebraska.Overamillion treeswereplantedthatday.ArborDaybecamea state holiday inNebraska onApril22,1885.ItisalsoMorton'sbirthday.ArborDay iscelebrated ondifferentdatesin somestates. Itdependsonthebesttimetoplanttrees in eachstate.
Summary
ArborDaycelebratesthefuturebyplantingtreesin theU.S. Theholiday wasfoundedbyJulius MortoninNebraskain1872andiscelebratedinallofthestatesacrosstheU.S.today.
Theme
TheTortoiseandtheHare
Thereoncelivedatortoiseandahare.Theharebraggedthathewas sofasthecouldbeatanyone.Thetortoisesaidhewouldracehim.Theharestartedoutwayahead.Hethoughtitwouldtakethetortoisealongtimetocatchupwithhim.Hedecidedtotakealittlenap.Thetortoisedidnot stop.Hekeptmoving,slowlybutsurely.Whentheharewokeup,hesawthatthetortoisewasabout tocrossthefinishline.Hetriedtocatchup, but thetortoisebeathim.
Question:Whatisthethemein thisstory?
Answer:Slowandsteadywinstherace.
Explanation: Theauthordidnottellyouwhatthetheme isinthis story.Youhavetofigureit
out.Thetortoisewasvery slow,yethekeptgoingat asteadypaceandwontherace.The themeis, "Slowandsteadywins therace."
CharacterAnalysis
Whattraitsdoes thecharacterhave?
- Atraitis aninterestingthingabout acharacter.It makesacharacterspecial.Atraitcouldbethewayacharacterlooksor acts.Wordslike"funny,""fast,""strong,"or"smart"describetraits.
- Example:Freddieisatallboywithblackhair. Helikes toeatice cream.
Whatrelationshipsdoes thecharacterhave?
- Arelationshipisaconnectionbetweenpeople.Thiscanmeancharactersarefriends,family,orschoolmates.
- Example:BeaandCarolina aresisters.Theyarealsobestfriends.Theyalwaysdo everythingtogether.
Whydoes thecharacterdosomething?
- Itisimportanttoknowwhycharactersdothings.Characterssometimes dothingsbecauseof howtheyfeel.
- Example:Joe Bearkickedtheskateboardbecausehewasangry.
Whois tellingthestory?
- Thenarratoristhe persontellingthestory.The point of viewistheviewofthenarrator. Heor shecan changehowthe readerseesthings. In the example below,thenarratorisabigsister.Shemakesthereader thinkthat thebabydoesnotlikeher.
- Example:Mynewbabysister doesnotlikeme. Shealwayscrieswhen Itry toholdher.
Whatproblemdoes thecharacterhave?
- Moststoriesareabouthowcharacterssolveaproblem.Lookforwhatcharactersinastoryarehavingtroublewith. Howdotheysolve theirproblems?
- Example:Joey'sbikehasflattires. Hesolveshisproblembyputtingmore airinthem.
Howdoes thecharacterchange?
- Sometimes,characterschangeina story.Anothercharacterinthestorymay changehowthemaincharacteracts.
- Example:George didnotlikehisneighborKate.Sheneversaidhitohim. Oneday,Kate trippedandhurtherankle.George askedKateifshewasokayandhelpedhergetup. Now,George andKate are bestfriends.
Dialogue
Importantthings torememberaboutdialogue:
- Thewordsacharacterspeaksare setapartbyquotationmarks"".
- Thedialogue withinquotationmarksfollowsthe same rulesasregularsentences.Thefirstletterinthe sentenceshouldbecapitalized,andpropernouns,names,andwordslike"I"shouldalsobecapitalized.
example:
“Ilovehot chocolate!"Marsha toldRonald.
(I love hotchocolate are thewordsthatMarsha saidoutloud.)
- Wordslike"said,""called,"or"replied" let the readerknowwho isspeakingin a story.Itisimportant topayattention towhateachcharactersays,especiallywhenthereismorethan one charactertalking.
example:
"Youhurtmyfeelingswhenyouyelledatme,"saidTony."I'm sorry!"Marcustold him."Ididnot meantohurtyou.""Great!"said Paul."Nowwecanallbefriendsagain."
- Wordsspokenby acharacterin a storyarenot alwaysincomplete sentences.
example:
"What'sup?"Marioaskedhisfriend."Oh,nothing,"replied Tomas.
- Slantedletters(calleditalicletters)indialogue can meanavarietyofthings.Usually,thecharacterspendsmoretime sayingthese words.Sometimeswritersuse slantedletterstoshowaword'simportance.Readerscan figureout whyawordisslantedbypayingclose attention tothestory.
example:
"Mysisterisalwaysonthephone,"groaned Hector.
- Writerssometimesrepeat wordsand/orletters.Repeatingwordsshowstheimportanceofwhatisbeing
said.Repeatinglettersshowsthat acharacterisstuttering.Stutteringcanbeacluetothe character'sfeelings.
example:
"Whydoyoulook so frightened?" thespideraskedMaria."I'mjust sayinghello."
"S-s-s-s-spidersaren't supposedtotalk!"Mariacried."Youshouldn't beabletotalk!"
- Sometimeswritersusealineofdots(. . .) toshowthatthecharactersarepausinglongerthantheyshouldbetweenwords.
example:
"I think. . .I'll takealittlenap,"yawnedSleepyBear.
- Largedashes(—) canalsoappearindialogue.They usuallymeanthatacharactersuddenlystopstalkingforsome reason.
example:
"Iamrunningoutofsnowballs!"Ritatold her brother."Wait—okay,here are moresnowballsforyou,"hereplied.
PlotandSetting
Setting
Settingis thetimeandplacein whichastoryoccurs.Forexample,thesettingofTheLittleMermaidis thesea.
Plot
Theeventsofastoryarecalledtheplot.Plotis alsotheorder in whichtheauthorputstheeventsinastory.Forexample,hereis theplotof"TheThreeLittlePigs":
- Threepigslefttheirhometofindtheirfortune.They eachbuiltahouse,because theyhadtohaveaplace to
live. Awolfcame and scared eachpig. Thewolfblewdownthefirsttwohousesbecause thepigshadnotdonea goodjobofbuildingthem.The wolfcouldnot blowdownthethirdpig'shousebecause thepig wasahardworkerand builtthehousetobestrong. Thethirdpiglivedhappilyeverafterbecausehe washard-working.
Conflict
Theconflictis theproblemin thestory.Whatis theconflictin "TheThreeLittlePigs"?Thewolf andthepigsarein conflictbecausethewolfchasesthepigs.Theconflictisresolvedoncethepigsgatherin thesafe,stronghouse.
Resolution
Theresolutionishowaproblem orconflictissolvedin astory.Thestoryusuallyendsafter themainconflictissolved.
examples:
- Ateenagerdoesnothavethemoneyheneedstobuythe carhewants(conflict),sohegetsajobata restaurantandsavesuntilhefinallyhasenough(resolution).
- Ayounggirlisfailinghermathclass(conflict),sohergrandfathertutorsher untilshe passesherclass(resolution).
CauseandEffect
Causeandeffecttakes placewhenonethingmakessomethingelsehappen.Thethingthathappensis
theeffect,andthereasonithappensis thecause.Withoutcauseandeffect,thingswouldhappeninstoriesfornoreasonatall,andtheevents wouldnotmakesense.
examples:
- Agroupof hikersgetcaughtin a blizzard(cause),so theyhave tobuild a sheltertowaitoutthestorm (effect).
- Elizaishungry(cause),soshemakesherselfasandwichtoeat (effect).
Imagery
Readthesentencein theboxbelow.Thinkabout thepicturesitputsinyourmind.
Itwouldhavebeeneasyfortheauthortowrite,"ThenoisefromthesteamvalvescaredEugene."However,this does nottellthereaderhowloud thevalveis.Bysayingthatitsquealsandthattheroomis"smoky,"thewriterpaintsaspookypictureforthereader.ItletsthereaderseehowcreepytheboilerroomisforEugene.
SimileandMetaphor
Simile
Asimileis whentwothings arecomparedbecausethey havesomethingincommon.ThewordASorLIKEisusedtocomparethetwowords.
examples:
Metaphor
Ametaphoralsocomparestwothings,butitdoesitmoredirectly.Itdoesnotusethewords"as"or"like."
examples:
Drama
DramaTerms
act
Anactis abigchunkofaplay.Itislikeachapterin abook.MostofShakespeare'splayshavefiveacts.
cast/characters / Aplaywill listthenamesofthecharactersneeded.Somelistswilleven givealittledescriptionofeachrole.Thelistofcharacters,or"cast,"isshownatthetopoftheplay.dialogue / Dialogueis the wordsspokenbycharacters in aplay.
monologue / Alongspeechbyacharacterin aplay,spokeneithertoothersorasifthecharacterisalone.
offstage / Offthestage;outofviewoftheaudience.Whenacharactertalksoffstage, theaudiencecanhearbutnotseethecharacter.
onstage / Onthestage;in theviewoftheaudience.Inmostplays,thecharacterswillnotbeonstagethewholetime.Look forcluesin thestagedirectionstoseewhencertaincharactersenteronstage.
playwright / Peoplewhowriteplaysarecalledplaywrights.ThemostfamousplaywrightofalltimeisWilliamShakespeare.
scene / Asceneis asmall chunk ofaplay.Asceneusuallyhasjustoneevent,likeaconversationorafight.An actismadeup ofmanyscenes.
stagedirections / Stagedirectionstellactors howtomoveandspeak.Moststagedirectionsarein parentheses() and/orinitalics(slantedwords).Theycan alsotell youwheretheplayistakingplace.
stageset / Describeshowthestageshouldlook.Itgives thedirectoranideafordesigningtheset. Itgivestheaudienceabetterideaofwheretheplaytakesplace.
ExampleofaDrama
CHARACTERS:
Phil,leader ofthegroupShannon,whiny,hardtopleaseJanet,verysmartandwise
Les,fun-loving
Stageset:Stateparkcampsite
ActISceneI
SummerBreak
LES: / Let's goswimminginthelake.Itwill bemorefun,anditwillcoolus off.PHIL: / (PattingLes ontheback)Greatidea!
SHANNON: / Ihopethewaterisnottoocold.Swimmingdoes soundbetterthanhiking,though.
JANET: / I'mallforit!
Poetry:Stanza,Meter, andRhythm
Stanza
Astanzais adivisionofapoem madebyarrangingthelinesintounitsseparatedbyaspace,usuallyofacorrespondingnumberoflines,andarecurrentpatternofmeterandrhyme.Apoemwithsuchdivisionsisdescribedashavingastanzaicform.Stanzas can alsobecalledverses.
Meter
Meteris therhythmicpatternofastanza,determinedbythekindandnumberoflines.Thenumber ofsyllablesineachlineofastanzacandeterminethemeter.
Rhythm
Rhythmis theregularor progressivepatternofrecurrentaccentsin theflow ofapoem.
Example
Thepoem belowis arhymedpoemwithtwostanzas.Therhymingwords arein bold,andthetextin redrepresentsoneofthetwostanzas.
MyFeetAreTooBig
byD.U.DerinoMyfeetaremuchtoobig,
Myfeetaremuchtoolong,
Alltheotherkids'feetarenormalMinejustdonotbelong.
MomsayswhenIamolder,Iwillgrowintomy feet,
ThenmaybeIwillbethetallestkid,Thatwouldbesupersweet!
RhymeSchemes
Rhymingwords arewordsthatsoundthesameattheends,suchascat/hat, orjumping/bumping.
Whena poemhasrhymingwordsattheendsoflines,thesearecalled“endrhymes.”Hereisanexampleofendrhyme:
Mycatis nice.Mycatlikesmice.
A“rhymescheme”is a wayofdescribingthepatternofendrhymesin apoem.Eachnewsoundattheendofalineisgivenaletter, startingwith“A,”then“B,”andsoon.Ifanendsoundrepeatstheendsound of anearlierline,itgetsthesameletter astheearlierline.
Herearethreeslightlydifferentcatpoems,eachwithadifferentrhymescheme.ThefirstisAABB,thesecondisABAB,andthethirdisABCB):
Mycatisnice.A
Mycatlikesmice.A
Mycatisfat.B
Ilikemy cat.B
Mycatis nice.A
Mycatisfat.B
Mycatlikesmice.A
Ilikemycat.B
Mycatisgray.A
Mycatisfat.B
Mycatiscute.C
Ilikemycat.B
Genres
Fiction
Fictional storiesaremadeupbyawriter.Thesestoriesareusuallywrittenin sentencesandparagraphs.Sincetheyaremadeupbythewriter,many fictionstorieshaveeventsor charactersthatcouldnothappenin reallife.Forexample,atalkingdogwouldbea goodcluethatthestory youarereadingisfictional!
Therearemanydifferentkindsof fictionstories.Fables,fairytales,talltales,andfolktalesaresomeexamplesof fictionstories.Poemsanddramas arekindsofwritingthatcanbeeitherfictionornonfiction.
- Amythisastorypeople madeuptoexplain abelief orsomethinginnature. For example,amythmighttrytoexplainwhytheskyisbluethroughaninterestingstory.
- Anovelisafictionalstorywritteninprosethatisof considerablelength.Itsgreatlengthallowsittohavemultiple characters,plotlines,andshiftsinpointsof view.Anovelisoftenbrokenup bychapters, whichiswhyitisalsoknownasa chapterbook. Onetypeof novelisayoung adultnovel,which isaimedatpeople betweentheageof13 and 18.
- Ashortstoryiswritteninsentencesandparagraphs.Itusuallyhasfewerthan10,000 words.Itsshortlengthallowsittobereadinone sitting.
- Historical fictionisafictionalstorythatisbasedon a time,event,orseriesofeventsthathavetakenplaceinhistory. Theplayersorcharactersinthestoryare either entirelyfictional,ortheyarebasedonarealperson orpersonsinhistory.ThenovelJohnny Tremainisanexampleof historical fictionbecauseitisaboutayoungboywhogetscaughtupintheAmericanRevolution.
- Amystery/suspensestoryputsthecharacterinchargeofsolving acrimeorfiguringout what'sgoingon.TheoldSherlockHolmesseriesis anexampleofmystery/suspense.
- Science fictionisastoryaboutthefuture,basedonguessesofhowtheauthorthinksthefuturewillbe. Mostscience-fictionstoriesfocusonthemeslikeouterspace,technology,andtime travel.
- Fablesareshort,moralstoriesthattrytoteachalesson.Fablesoftenhave animalsascharacters.
example:
Thekingwasalwaysmeantothedragon.Oneday,thekinggotlost.Thedragon helpedhimgethome.
Thekinglearnednottobemeantoothers.
- Folktalesarestoriesthatusemade-upeventstoexplainwhy orhowsomethinghappened.These storiesareusuallyhanded downfromearliertimes,and theycannotbe provedtrueoruntrue.Sometimes,afolktale isalsocalledalegend.
example:
Thehorsedidnotalwayshavealongnose.Oneday,ahorsesneezedsohard,hisnosegrewverylong.
Eversincethatday,horseshavevery longnoses.
- Legendsaresemi-true stories,thathavebeenpassedon frompersontopersonandhaveimportantmeaningorsymbolismforthecultureinwhichthey originate.Alegend usually includesanelementof truth,orisbased onhistoricfacts, butwith "mythical qualities."Legendsusuallyinvolveheroic charactersorfantastic placesandoftenencompassthe spiritualbeliefsofthecultureinwhichtheyoriginate.
example:
Atlantisis alostcontinent.ItsankbeneaththeAtlanticOceanthousandsofyears ago.
Atlantisisfull oftreasureandriches.
Poetry
Poetrylooksdifferentthanotherkindsofwriting.Poetryisoftenwritteninshortlines.Thelinesinapoemoftenrhyme.Sometimeseverylinebeginswithacapital letter.
example:
TeddyBear
byJ.Robbins
IhaveateddybearnamedPooh;Westicktogetherjustlikeglue;
IplaywithPoohBearinthepark;Hehelpsmesleepwhenitis dark.
Drama
Dramas arewritten forpeopletoactout.Playsandskits aretwoexamplesofdramas.Dramaslookdifferentfromotherkindsofwriting.Thecharacter'snamesarewrittenout,andthewordstheyspeakarewrittenbesidethem.Dramasalsohavespecial instructionsthattell youwhatthestagelookslikeandhowthecharactersshouldlookor act.
Nonfiction
Nonfictionis akindofwritingthatgivesfactsandtrueinformation.Nonfiction tellsyouaboutsomethingthatreallyhappened.Biographiesareexamplesof nonfictionwriting.
- Anautobiographyisapieceofwritingthataperson writesabouthisorherown life.Autobiographiesarewrittenusingwordslike"I,""me,""us,"and"we."Ifyouwrote astoryaboutyourown life,youwouldbewritinganautobiography.
Abiographyisapieceofwritingabout arealperson'slife.Abiographyiswrittenbysomeoneotherthanthe
personwhoselifeisbeingdescribed.If youwere towriteabookaboutthelifeof AbrahamLincoln,youwould bewritinga biography.
- Anessayisashortpieceof informational writingon asingle subject.Itusuallypresentsapersonal viewoftheauthor.Essayscanbepersonalorpersuasive (showanopinion).
Author'sAttitude
Areadercanfindoutwhatawriter thinksbylookingforopinions.
Mostwriterschoosewordsthatwillhelpthereadersknowwhattheythink.Tofindoutwhat thewriter thinksaboutsomething,look for opinionsfromthewriter.
Herearesome wordsandphrasesto lookfor:
- Ithink. . .
- I feel. . .
- Ibelieve . . .
- should
- best
- worst
- ought to
- in myopinion
example:
ScottishTerriers
Scottishterriersarethecutestdogsin theworld! I thinkeveryoneshouldownaScottish terrier.Somepeoplecallthem"Scotties"forshort.Scotties aresmartanimalsthatlearn easily.Theyareeasytotakecareof.SomeU.S.presidentshaveownedthem.Ifpresidentshaveownedthem,thenthey mustbe gooddogs.Thatisgoodenoughforme!
Question1:Whichofthefollowingsentenceswouldthewritermostlikelyagreewith?
A.Scottieslove people.
B.Scottiesareveryugly.
C.Scottiesmakegood pets.
D.Scottiesarefriendly.
Explanation:Theparagraph saysthatifpresidentshaveownedScotties,thenthey mustbe gooddogs.Thismakes thewriterfeelScottiesmake goodpets.ThecorrectanswerisC.
AuthorBias
Bias ispreferringsomethingorplayingfavorites.Theoppositeofbeingbiasedisbeingobjective.Apersonwhoisbeingobjectiveisnotinfluencedbyprejudice orbias.Beingobjectiveincludesthe waythepersonrelates tootherpeople.Thinkabouthowafamilymembermightdescribeyou.Nowthinkabouthowyourteacher,afriend,orastrangermightdescribeyou.Theywillallhavedifferentthings tosaybased on theiroutlook.
example:
- Yourmomordad might say,"Mykidisthesmartestkidinschool andthe bestkidinsports."
Wemustalsothinkaboutbeliefs andages.
example:
- Amothermightnotlikeamoviebecauseithadtoomuchactionandexplosions,buther son mightloveit. Ifeachpersonweretodescribethemovietoyou,thesonwouldprobablyuse wordslike"exciting"and"awesome."Themothermightsay itwas"disturbing"or"inappropriate." Think about theiragesandoutlooksandhowtheymight affect theiropinions.
Peopleconstantlyoffertheiropinions,evenwhenreadersmightnotrealizeit.Justbydescribingascene oraneventacertainway,peoplecanaffectthe wayothersseethings.Canyouthinkoftimesyoumighthavedonethisbyexaggerating?
examples:
- Thetest wassounfair.Istudiedforeverand stillonlygot aC.
- Dad, do I havetogotothedentist? Itissoscarythere!Themachinesare big enough tofillourhouse,andthedoctorismean.And I thinkthetoothpastetheyusetasteslikesand.
NarratorandSpeaker
Toidentifyanddescribethespeakerornarrator,areadermustfindoutwhoistellingthestory.Thespeakeristhevoicethat"talks" tothereader.Heorsheisnotnecessarilytheauthorofastoryorpoem.Itcouldbeacharacterthattheauthormadeuptotellthestory.Italsocouldbesimplyanall-knowingspeakerthatrelatesthestorytothereader.
Thenarratoras acharacter:Thespeakercanbesomeoneinthestorywhotells the storyfrom hisorherpointofview.Whenthenarratoris acharacterin thestory,sometimesanothercharactersays thespeaker'sname.Thespeakerusuallyuses words like"I," "me,"and"we"to showthatapersonfromthestoryispersonally experiencingtheaction.Whenthe authorhasoneofthecharactersin thestorynarratetheevents,itgives thereaderacloseconnection totheevents.
Theunnamednarrator:Sometimes,thenarratorwon'tbenamedin thestoriesyouread.Whenthis
happens,itmaybebecausethestoryor poemistoldfromthepointofview ofsomeoneall-knowing.Heorsheknowsallofthecharacters'thoughtsandactions.Thespeakercanbeapartofthestoryorpoem,orthespeakercanjusttellthestory.
Whenthespeakerdoesn'tactorspeaktotheother characters,thespeakeris avoiceoutside ofthe storyaction.Heorsheusuallyuses words like"he," "she,""it,"and"they."
PointofView
FirstPerson
Firstperson pointofviewusesI orwe.Firstpersonis oftenusedwhensomeoneisstatinganopinionorsharingafeeling.
example:
IjumpedforjoywhenI gotanewbikeformybirthday!
SecondPerson
Secondpersonpointofviewuses thewordyou.Secondpersonis a goodchoicewhengivingdirectionsoranytimeyouarespeakingdirectlytosomeone.Secondpersonisalmostneverusedtotellastory.example:
Youneedtobringanotebookandapencil to class.
ThirdPerson
Thirdperson pointofviewuses he,she,orthey. Sometimesitisusedwhentalkingaboutathinginsteadofaperson.
example:
Jamal sangthemostbeautiful songatthetalentshow, andhewonfirstplace.
Illustrations
17
Herearesomequestions tothinkaboutwhenyoureadfromabookorstorythatincludesillustrations,drawings,pictures,orimages:
- Whywasthispicturechosento illustratethestory?
- Whatdoyouthinkofwhenyouseeit?
- Doesitmake thestorybetter?Doesitmakethestoryworse?
- Whatcolorsarethereinthepicture?Dothecolorsshowthatthestory isahappystoryor asadstory? Howdothecolorsmakeyoufeel? Are theybrightand cheerfulor darkand gloomy?
- Haveyou seenthepicture before somewhere else?Ifyouhave,whatdoyouremember aboutit?
- Whichpartsfrom thestoryareillustrated?
- Howdetailedisthepicture compared tothestory? Didtheartistleaveout anythingthe authortriedtomakeimportant?
example:
Inthefollowingillustration,abearrunsawayfromagroupofbees.Theillustratorshowsthatthebearisangry.Thebear'seyebrowspointdown,andthemouthis turneddownlikeafrown.Anillustrationhelps thereaderpicturewhathappensin thestory.
Graphics
RoadMaps
Aroadmaphelptravelersfindtheirwayfromoneplaceto another.Someroadmaps showonlymainhighways.Others showsmallerroads.
DowntownFriendlyville
BarGraphs
Abargraphshowsinformationusingbars.
PictureGraphs
Apicturegraphshows information usingpictures.
PieGraphs
Apiegraphshows howthesizesofthe partscomparetoeachotherandthewhole.
Tables
Atableis a waytoorganizeinformationinboxesusingrowsandcolumns.Thefirstcolumnis themainsubjectofthetable.Theothercolumnsgivemoreinformationaboutthesubjectin thefirstcolumn.Eachrowhasalltheinformationfor onesubject.Seeanexampleofatablebelow.Itgivesinformationaboutdifferentstudents inaclass.
Schedules
Aschedulesshows whatisgoingtohappenorwhatneeds tohappenatacertaintime.
Dance DayScheduleEvent / Time
Breakfast / 8:00-9:00am
BeginningSalsaDance / 9:15-10:25am
Contras DanceBandWorkshop / 10:40-11:50am
Dance DaySchedule
Round-up(news,fun andgames) / 12:00-12:45pm
Lunch / 12:45-1:30pm
Swimming / 1:30-2:30pm
Dance Party / 3:00-6:00pm
Dinner / 6:05-7:00pm
Diagrams
Adiagramsis adrawingorplan.Itoutlinesandexplains thepartsofsomething.
WebDiagrams
Awebdiagramishelpfulwhenyouwanttoseewhatthemainideasanddetailsofaparagraphare.Writersalsousewebdiagramsto helpthemarrangetheirideas.Inawebdiagram,thecentercircletells thetopicoftheparagraph.Thecirclesconnectedtothecenter circlegivedetails aboutthetopic.
VennDiagrams
AVenndiagramismadeup ofoverlappingcircles.Inthis example,theshadedareaiswherethecirclesoverlap.Each circleislabeledontheoutsidewithatopic.Insideeachcircle,facts arelistedforthe
topics.Factsaretruestatementsaboutatopic.Whenafactislistedin theoverlappingarea ofthecircles,thismeans thefactistrueforbothtopics.Seeexamplebelow.
CompareandContrast
Question:Howarethethingsin thesepicturesalikeanddifferent?
Answer:Thehats both haveblackribbons.Thedogs aredifferentcolors.
Compare=Similarities
Look forwordslike.. .
- similar
- in thesameway
- likewise
- justlike
- aswell
- in addition
Contrast=Differences
Look forwordslike.. .
- different
- in contrast
- ontheotherhand
- however
- onthecontrary
- instead
- although
- but
Readthestory,and trythesamplequestionsthatfollows:
FriarWoods
FriarWoodsis anice,quietplace.Somemightcallita"neighborhood."Allthe animalstalktoeachother. Theyworktogether,andtheyplaytogether.Theyalsoprotecteachotherfromharm.LeotheLionisknownas thefighter.HewillfightanyintruderthatcomesintoFriarWoodswithoutaninvitation.Heworksreally hardduringthe dayandsleepssoundlyatnight.OttotheOwlhootswhendangerisnear.Ottosleepsalldayandis upallnight.FriarWoodsisalwaysunderawatchfuleye.Theanimalstakecareofeachotherandliveinharmony.
1.WhatissimilaraboutLeoandOtto(compare)?Answer:LeoandOttobothlivein FriarWoods.
2.HowareLeoandOttodifferent(contrast)?
Answer:Leosleepsatnight,andOttosleeps duringtheday.
READINGSTANDARDSFORINFORMATION
MainIdea
Whenyouarelookingforthemainidea ofapassage,askyourself .. .
- Whydidtheauthor writethispassage?
- Whatisthepassagemostlyabout?
Whenyouthinkyouknowwhatthemainideais,askyourself...
- Doallof thesentencesinthepassagesupportthisidea?
Iftheanswerisyes,youhavefoundthemainidea.Remember,themainideaismoredetailed,orspecific,thanatopic.Forexample,youmightreadapassageaboutthetelevision-watchinghabitsofchildren.Thatisthetopic.Themainideawouldbemorespecific,like"Childrentodayarewatchingtwiceasmuchtelevisiononaveragethanchildrenwerewatchingfiveyearsago."Thesentencesinthepassagewouldsupportthismainideabyexplainingthispoint.Onesupportingdetailmightbethenumberofhoursoftelevision childrenwatchedfiveyears ago.
Trytofindthemainidea ofthepassagebelow:
Thinkaboutanyfireworks display you'veeverseen.Prettycool,right?Well,thoseshows arenothingcomparedtonature'slightshow. TheNorthern Lights,alsocalledAuroraBorealis,canbeseenalmostanydayoftheyearsomewherein theworld.AurorasareacombinationofwindfromtheSunandtheEarth'smagnet-likeatmosphere.Whentheycometogether,theresultis abeautifullightshow.Aurorascanonlybeseenbyhumaneyesatnight.PlacesneartheNorthPolearethebesttoviewAuroraBorealis.EasternCanadaandAlaskaare goodareasnearthePole.
Whatis themainideaofthis passage?
ThispassageisabouttheNorthernLights,or AuroraBorealis.Itexplainshowtheyhappen andwheretheycanbeseen.AuroraBorealisis abeautiful natural lightshow.Thatis themainideaofthis passage.Theothersentencesinthepassagesupportthisidea.
FollowingInstructions
1.Whichchoicebelowisaninstruction?
A.Add 2 cupsofmilk.
B.Ineed 2cupsofmilk.
C.Wherearethe2 cupsofmilk?
D.Milk isgoodforyourbones.
SampleQuestions
Explanation:ThecorrectanswerisA."Add2cupsofmilk"isaninstruction.Itisalsocalledacommand.Theotherchoices arestatementsandaquestion.Theyarenotinstructions.
BeachFun Sunscreen
Directions:Useallyearround.Putalargeamounton youruncoveredskinbeforegoingoutinthesun.Makesuretospread this sunscreen evenly.Putonthesunscreenagainafterswimmingorsweating.
Caution:For useonskin only.Donotgetitin theeyes.Ifitgetsin theeyes,rinsewithwater. Ifrashappears,stopuse.
2.WhenshouldyouputonBeachFunSunscreen?
A.aftergetting askinrash
B.before goingoutinthesun
C.before ridingout tothebeach
D.aftertakinganevening shower
Explanation:ThecorrectanswerisB.Youshouldput onthesunscreenbeforegoingoutin thesun.Thedirectionsalsosayto useitafteryouswimorsweat.Knowingwhentodosomethingisimportant. This willhelpyouusetheproductsuccessfully.Sometimesdirectionstell youwhatnottodo.Followingtheseinstructionsisalsoimportant.
CauseandEffect
Acauseiswhysomethinghappens.
Aneffectiswhathappensbecauseofthatcause.
Whenyouread,lookforcause-and-effectrelationships.Thinkaboutthesequestions:
- Doesthispassage tellyouwhysomethinghappens?
- Doesthiseventcause somethingelse to happen?
- Isthecharacterdoingthisbecause ofsomethingthathappened?
Readthepassagebelowandlook forthecause-and-effectrelationships.
Manyyearsago,agroupofpeoplecalledtheHuns attackedChina.TheHuns wantedtoconquertheChinese.BecausetheChinesewantedtoprotectthemselves,they builtahugewall.This wallwas 1,500mileslong.As aresultofthiswall,theHunswerekeptoutofChina.ThisGreatWallofChinaisstillstandingtoday.
Thiswriterusescauseandeffect.Think:"Whathappened?"Answer:TheChinesebuiltawall.Thisis theeffect.
Think:"Whydidtheybuildthewall?"
Answer:TokeeptheHunsout.Thisis thecause.
Theclue words "because"and"asaresult"helpus answerthesequestions.
TextOrganization
ChronologicalOrder
Thewriterplaces eventsin theorderin whichtheyoccur.Lookforthefollowingwords andphrases.
- first
- then
- finally
- afewminuteslater
- next
- afterlunch
- lastyear
example:
- Mr. Cartercarriednewbooksintohisclassroom.Then,he counted allthebooks.Next,hewillpassoutthebooks tohisstudents.Finally,hewilltellhisstudentswhichpages toreadfortomorrow.
Compare/Contrast
Thetextshowshowideasor thingsarealikeor different.Lookforthefollowingwords.
- best
- more
- better
- less
- worse
- easier
- than
example:
- Brandonplaysmore sportsthan hissister Jackiedoes. Brandon'smusclesarestronger thanJackie'smuscles.
CauseandEffect
Thetextshowsthatoneeventcausesanother thingtohappen.Look forthefollowingwords andphrases.
- because
- then
- since
- asaresult
example:
- Thegrassin ouryardis tallandgreenbecauseitrained alotlastweek.
Pro/Con
Thetextisdividedintotwoparts:onepart tellsyouwhysomethingis good,andtheotherpart tellsyouwhysomethingisbad.Lookforthefollowingwordsandphrases.
- however
- ontheotherhand
example:
- Playinganinstrumentinthebandcanbeveryrewardingandfun. You can learnalotaboutmusic andrhythm. You can make manynewfriendsinthe band.However,playing abandinstrumentcanalsobeverycostly.You willneedtospendtime practicingyourmusic.Buyinganinstrument andsuppliesforyourinstrument costsalotof money.
Problem/Solution
Thetextisdividedintotwoparts.Onepartpresentsaproblem,andtheotherpartgives thesolutiontotheproblem.Lookforthefollowingwords.
- problem
- solution
- solve
- plan
example:
- Yost City officialshaveannouncedthatthe cityhasrun outofmoneytogivetothe publiclibrary.Thismaycause thelibrarytocloselaterthisyear.Manycitizenswho hopetosolve thisproblemhavecome
together.Theybelieve thesolutionis toraisemoneyforthelibrarythemselves.Theyplantohavegaragesalesand bake salesandgivethemoneytheymaketothelibrary.
Theproblem inthepassageabovecanbesummedupbythisquestion:
Howcanthepubliclibrarygetenoughmoneytostayopen?
Thesolution:
Citizenswillhavegaragesalesandbakesales totrytomakeenoughmoneyforthelibrary.
SupportingSentences
example:
Mexico:TheOldandNew
(1)Mexicooffersvisitorsaworldofcontrasts.(2)Its pyramidsandancientruins arepartofancienthistory,whileitsmoderncitiesprovideus withthebestoftoday'stechnology.(3)Its mountainsoffercoolweatherandrockypeaks,while onlyafewmilesaway,itsbeachestemptus withwarmsunandwhitesand.(4)Itsfancyrestaurants servethemostsophisticatedcontinentalcuisine,whilesidewalkvendorssellthesimplestofnativefoods.
Sentence1statesthemainideaoftheparagraph.
- Themain ideaisthatMexico hasmany examplesof contrasts(differences).
Sentences 2through4aresupportingsentences.
- Theancientpyramidsandthemoderncitiesare anexampleofcontrast.
- Thecool mountainsareincontrasttothewarmbeaches.
- Thefancyrestaurantsstandincontrasttothesimplefoodsoldbyvendors.
IntroductionsandConclusions
Introduction
Theintroductionsetsthetonefor therestof your story,paper,or report.Theintroductionwillestablishyourtopicforyouraudience.Agoodintroduction cangettheaudienceinterestedin whatyouhavetosay.Abadintroduction canlosetheaudience'sattention.One waytoeaseyouraudienceintoyourintroductionis touseintroductorystatements.Thesearestatementsthatcanaskquestions,stateopinions,presentarguments,tellastory,orgivebackgroundinformation.
Herearesomewordsandphrasesyoucanuseinintroductorystatements:
- atthepresenttime
- currently
- first
- in thebeginning
- rightnow
- tobegin with
Herearesomeexamplesofintroductorystatements:
- At thepresenttime, thereisno cureforthisillness.
- Currently,thedefinitionforabuseis thephysicaloremotionalmistreatmentofothers.
- Inthebeginning,thecrimerateforthecitywas too high to ignore.
- Tobegin with,theideathatteensneedpart-timejobsisridiculous.
Conclusion
Theconclusionbringseverythinginyourwritingtoanaturalend.Yourconclusionwillwrapupyourpaperwithoutofferinganynewevidence orinformation.Agoodconclusionwill tieeverythingfromthe
introductionandbodytogether,anditwillgetyouraudiencetothinkaboutwhatyouhavesaid.Concludingstatementsworkin thesame wayasintroductorystatements.Concludingstatementscanrestatethemainpointorargumentofyourpaper,recommendactionsorsolutions,predictthefuture,or useaquotation.
Herearesomewordsandphrasesyoucanuseinconcludingstatements:
- asIhave demonstrated
- finally
- in conclusion
- inshort
- lastly
- therefore
- tosumup
- tosummarize
Hereareexamplesofconcludingstatements:
- Finally,for usto continuetosupporttheseatbeltlawcanonlybebeneficial.
- Inconclusion,Ibelievetheonlywayto achievepeaceisthroughactivediscussions.
- Inshort,thetestisridiculousbecauseit'snot currentanditdoesn'tofferanyrealbenefits.
- Tosumup, cooperationisthekeybecause as BenFranklinsaid,"Asmallleakcansinkagreatship."
Logical Order
ChronologicalOrder
Withthehelp of"clue" words,youcaneasilyunderstandthecorrectorderofastory.
- First:Thiswordisacluethatthe sentence should start thingsoff.Remember,itdoesn'thavetobethefirstwordinthesentence.
- Next:Thiswordisacluethatsomethingcame beforeit. Asentence with thisword couldbesecond,third, orfourth. You willhavetorely on informationintheothersentencestodecide.
- Third,Fourth, Fifth:Thesearegreatcluewordsthattell youexactlywhatordertheeventshappened.
- Finally:Thisisaclue word thattellsyouthisisoneofthelast sentencesinthestory.Itshoulddescribethelasteventthat happenedin asequence.
TopicOrder
Writersuselogicalorder tohelpexplaintheirideas.Eachsentenceandparagraphmustbeplacedinawaythatmakessense.Topicsshouldbeclearandfollowedbyexamplesanddetails.Althoughthesepassagesarenotinsequence,theystillusecluewordstoguidethereaders.Theseclue words ortransitionwordsletthereadersknowwhatisnext.Thesewordsmayincludehowever,forexample,andsimilarly.Anotherpart oflogicalorder
is aconclusion.Aconclusionis aparagraphor sentencethatwraps upthepassage.Aconclusionmayansweranyquestionsthatthereader mighthave
Example
- (1) OnFriday,ourfirst dayof camp, wewentfishingatthelake.(2) Afterwecaughtfourfish, wedecidedtohike totheothersideofthecamp.(3) While wewere swimming, myfriendJudeheldhisbreath for threeminutesunderwater!(4)Wesangsongsaroundthecampfireon ourlastnightofcamp.(5) OnSundaymorning,wepacked up our gearandboarded thebusesbackhome.(6) OnSaturdaymorning, we rodepaddleboatsandwent swimming.
Question:Whichsentencein this passageisin thewrongplace?
A.sentence6
B.sentence3
C.sentence1
D.sentence2
Answer:Sentence6isnotthefinal eventin thechronologicalstory.Sentence6shouldbeplacedbeforesentence3.Sentence3describeswhatJudedidwhilethe group wentswimming.Also,ifthespeakerleftcamp onSunday,thenthegroupmusthavesangsongs onSaturdaynight.
TransitionsandFlow
Types ofTransitions
SignalTime orSequence
Use words suchasthese:first,second,finally,last,next,afterward,after,earlier,during,while,before,then,previously,now,until.
example:
- Earlier,mymotherwasatwork. Nowsheisathome.
SignalAdditionalInformation
Use words suchasthese:in addition,furthermore,moreover,and,also,another.