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5MOTIVATION AT WORK

Chapter Scan

This is the first of two chapters on motivation, behavior, and performance. This chapter addresses the early content theories of motivation that are related to the internal factors that explain behavior. Maslow's hierarchy of needs and McGregor's assumptions are discussed and compared. McClelland's need theory is presented, followed by a discussion of Herzberg's two-factor theory of hygiene factors and motivators. Process theories contained in this chapter include equity theory, social exchange theory, and expectancy theory.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:

1.Define motivation.

2.Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow's hierarchy of needs.

3.Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.

4.Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.

5.Describe how inequity influences individual motivation and behavior.

6.Explain seven different strategies for resolving inequity.

7.Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.

8.Describe the cultural differences in motivation.

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Chapter 5: Motivation at Work

KEY TERMS

Chapter 5 introduces the following key terms:

motivation

psychoanalysis

self-interest

need hierarchy

Theory X

Theory Y

need for achievement

need for power

need for affiliation

motivation factor

hygiene factor

inequity

equity sensitive

benevolent

entitled

valence

expectancy

instrumentality

moral maturity

THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED

  1. THINKING AHEAD: Noncompliance as a Hidden Health Threat

II.MOTIVATION AND WORK BEHAVIOR

Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. Motivation theories attempt to explain and predict observable behavior. Motivation theories may be classified as internal, process, or external theories. This is one of the most complex topics in organizational behavior because of the large number of variables that affect motivation.

A.Internal Needs

Motivation research is increasingly specific, and examines smaller portions of the larger theories. Writers have looked for internal, value-oriented reasons for motivation that would relate to the meaning of work for society. The Protestant ethic was related to the concept of working hard in order to secure a place in heaven. In contrast, Freud developed psychoanalysis as a method of probing the subconscious mind to understand a person’s motives and needs.

B.External Incentives

Early scholars assumed that self-interest and economic gain motivated people. The Hawthorne studies revealed the importance of social and interpersonal motivation. Early theories of motivation typically took one of two perspectives. The first perspective was that people acted out of self-interest for material gain. The second perspective suggested that people act in ways that satisfy their emotional needs. Adam Smith's basic assumption was that people are motivated by self-interest for economic gain. Therefore, employees will be most productive when motivated by self-interest. Self-interest refers to seek one’s own best interest and benefit. Frederick Taylor believed that the conflict between management and employees was over how to divide profits. These early ideas stand in contrast to newer theories of motivation.

III.MASLOW’S NEED HIERARCHY

A.The Hierarchy of Needs

The needs hierarchy divided motivation into five levels of needs to be satisfied. Maslow compared the lower level of this hierarchy to unsatisfied employees, and suggested that as people satisfy needs on one level, they progress to the next level of need as motivation for behavior.

B.Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor utilized the needs hierarchy to develop polarized assumptions about workers based on whether they are motivated by lower order needs or by higher order needs. Furthermore, he suggested that individuals in organizations should be treated differently depending on which level of needs motivated them. Theory X represents the assumptions associated with managing individuals motivated by lower order needs. Theory Y represents the assumptions associated with managing individuals motivated by higher order needs.

  1. ERG Theory

ERG theory represents a reclassification of Maslow's need hierarchy into three levels of needs. Alderfer also developed a regression hypothesis that suggests that individuals will focus on lower level needs when higher level needs are unattainable.

IV.MCCLELLAND'S NEED THEORY

McClelland's need theory focuses on personality and learned needs. He categorized motives into three manifest needs: need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.

A.Need for Achievement

The need for achievement refers to seeking excellence in performance and difficult, challenging goals. Research indicates that people with a high need for achievement outperform those with a moderate or low need for achievement.

B.Need for Power

The need for power is concerned with making an impact on others, influencing others, changing people or events, and making a difference in life. McClelland further distinguished between socialized power (used for the benefit of many) and personalized power (used for personal gain).

C.Need for Affiliation

The need for affiliation emphasizes the establishment and nurturing of intimate relationships with other people. In contrast, individuals with a high need for autonomy, as outlined in Murray’s manifest needs theory, value independence and freedom from constraints. Students will be able to identify the differences between individuals by using an example of telecommuting and by discussing which individual would be more comfortable with this change in organizational interaction.

V.HERZBERG'S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

The two-factor theory examines the degree to which individuals are satisfied or dissatisfied at work. Herzberg's theory provided two lists of needs. For example, work conditions related to satisfying psychological needs were determined to be motivation factors. On the other hand, hygiene factors were related to dissatisfaction and were caused by discomfort or pain.

A.Motivation Factors

Motivation factors lead to positive mental health and challenge people to grow; yet the absence of these factors does not lead to dissatisfaction.

B.Hygiene Factors

Job dissatisfaction occurs when the hygiene factors are either not present or not sufficient. However, because they cannot stimulate psychological growth, they do not lead to satisfaction.

C.Critique of the Two-Factor Theory

Although the approaches of Maslow and Herzberg were more flexible than previous theories, critics identify the lack of clear distinction between hygiene and motivation factors, the absence of individual differences, and the absence of intrinsic motivators as deficiencies. History is full of examples of people who are motivated by causes, personal missions, discovery, service, beliefs, creativity, and other factors not considered by Herzberg.

VI.SOCIAL EXCHANGE AND EQUITY THEORY

Social exchange and equity theory revolve around the balance between efforts and rewards in organizations. The individual-organization exchange relationshipaddresses the contributions and demands that each party makes in the relationship.

A.Demands and Contributions

1.Demands

Needs form the basis for the expectations or demands placed on organizations by individuals. Organizations express demands on individuals through job expectations, mission statements, and performance feedback.

2.Contributions

Contributions are the basis for satisfying the demands expressed by the other party in the relationship. Individual contributions include knowledge, skills, abilities, and professional contacts. Organizational contributions include status, benefits, income, and affiliation.

B.Adams’s Theory of Inequity

Adams's developed a theory of social exchange that analyzes inequity in the workplace. Specifically, inequity is the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving. Individuals calculate an inputoutcome ratio for themselves and compare it with an inputoutcome ratio for another person. If the ratios are not equivalent, perceived inequity results.

C.The Resolution of Inequity

Individuals seek to resolve inequity because it produces tension. The seven strategies for restoring equity are (1) to alter the person's outcomes, (2) to alter the person's inputs, (3) to alter the comparison other's outcomes, (4) to alter the comparison other's inputs, (5) to change who is used as a comparison other, (6) to rationalize the inequity, and (7) to leave the organizational situation.

D.New Perspectives on Equity Theory

New examinations of inequity have further refined the theory, including three different perspectives regarding equity: benevolent, entitled, and equity sensitive. An equity sensitive individual prefers a ratio that is equal to that of his or her comparison other. The benevolent individual is comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of his or her comparison other. The entitled individual is comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of his or her comparison other.

VII.EXPECTANCY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

Expectancy theory is based on personal perceptions of the performance process and the idea that people desire certain outcomes for behavior, and they believe there are connections between effort, performance, and outcomes. Expectancy theory is a cognitive, process theory of motivation that includes three key constructs: valence, expectancy, and instrumentality. Valence is the value or importance an individual places on a particular reward. Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to rewards.

A.Motivational Problems

Motivation problems stem from three basic causes within the expectancy theory framework. These causes are a disbelief in a relationship between effort and performance, a disbelief in a relationship between performance and rewards, and lack of desire for the rewards offered.

B.Motivation and Moral Maturity

Expectancy theory is grounded in the concept of self-interest, and does not explain motivations that may be altruistic. Moral maturity is a measure of a person's cognitive moral development that aids in explaining motivation for altruistic pursuits.

C.Cultural Differences in Motivation

In regard to Maslow’s, McClelland’s, Herzberg’s, and Vroom’s theories, differences have been found in different cultures’ reactions to motivational techniques.

VIII.MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: MANY WAYS TO MOTIVATE PEOPLE

IX.LOOKING BACK: Hygienic Factors, Motivation, and Compliance

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Early economic theories of motivation emphasized extrinsic incentives as the basis for motivation and technology as a force multiplier.

Early psychological theories of motivation emphasized internal needs but did not take into account individual diversity in these needs.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory of motivation was the basis for McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about people at work.

According to McClelland, the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation are learned needs that differ among cultures.

The two-factor theory found that the presence of motivation factors led to job satisfaction, and the presence of hygiene factors prevented job dissatisfaction.

Social exchange theory holds that people form calculated working relationships and expect fair, equitable, ethical treatment.

Expectancy theory says that effort is the basis for motivation and that people want their effort to lead to performance and rewards.

Theories of motivation are culturally bound and differences occur between nations.

REVIEW QUESTIONS: suggested answers

1. Define the terms motivation, needs, and equity.

Motivation is the process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behavior. Needs are the internal causes of motivation. Equity can be viewed in terms of the individual-organization exchange. When individuals receive what they believe they deserve based on their effort, they perceive equity.

2. How can knowledge of motivation theories help managers?

The workforce is increasingly diverse. Knowledge of motivation theories can help managers use a variety of techniques for motivating employees with a wide range of needs, interests, and abilities.

3. What are the five categories of motivational needs described by Maslow? Give an example of how each can be satisfied.

The needs hierarchy begins with fulfilling physiological needs, such as food and shelter. The second level involves safety and security needs that are satisfied by a feeling of safe surroundings, such as a well-lit environment in which to work. Family and friends can meet third level needs for love and social relationships. Fourth is the esteem need, which can be satisfied by titles and actions that earn respect from others. The final level is the self-actualizing need, which is the need to achieve one's full potential.

4. What are the Theory X and Theory Y assumptions about people at work? How do they relate to the hierarchy of needs?

Theory X is a skeptical, negative view of individuals and their relationship to tasks and work. Theory Y views individuals as highly motivated and responsible for their actions. Theory X individuals would be concerned with the lower three levels of Maslow's needs, and Theory Y individuals are concerned with the higher-order needs.

5. What three manifest needs does McClelland identify?

McClelland identifies needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. These needs are learned. Individuals and cultures differ in their levels of these needs.

6. How do hygiene and motivational factors differ? What are the implications of the two-factor theory for managers?

Hygiene factors are factors such as supervision, work policies, and working conditions. Hygiene factors can prevent dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. Motivational factors include a sense of achievement, recognition, and responsibility. Motivational factors may lead to satisfaction. Managers need to realize that both contribute to workers' attitudes toward the job.

7. How is inequity determined by a person in an organization? How can inequity be resolved if it exists?

Individuals in organizations calculate equity through a concept of social exchange. This intuitive exchange compares the demands versus the contributions of individuals in an environment. A person compares his/her input/outcome ratio to the same ratio for another person. The strategies for remedying an inequitable situation include (1) altering one's outcomes, (2) altering one's inputs, (3) alter the comparison other's outputs, (4) alter the comparison other's inputs, (5) change who is used for comparison, (6) rationalize the inequity, and (7) leave the organizational situation.

8. What are the key concepts in the expectancy theory of motivation?

This theory focuses on personal perceptions of desired outcomes of behavior, in conjunction with effort and performance. Valence is the value placed on the anticipated reward. Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to performance. Instrumentality is the belief that performance is related to the rewards.

DISCUSSION and communication QUESTIONS: suggested answers

1. What do you think are the most important motivational needs for the majority of people? Do you think your needs differ from those of most people?

This is similar to the research question that asks what motivates supervisors versus what motivates employees. Most of us think our motives are superior and deeper than the rest of the organizational members. No one wants to be merely normal or average. Most of us may share lower level needs, but there may be differences in the higher level needs.

2. At what level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs are you living? Are you basically satisfied at this level?

One of the difficulties with this question is that we typically move up and down the scale in different phases of our lives, or different surroundings. Students may not grasp this readily.

3. Assume you are leaving your current job to look for employment elsewhere. What will you look for that you do not have now? If you do not have a job, assume you will be looking for one soon. What will be the most important factors that you will seek?

This should relate to where students are on their needs hierarchy. Encourage students to use the terminology of motivational factors that they learned in this chapter. Students may also use equity theory and expectancy theory concepts to explain what they seek in a job.

4. If you were being inequitably paid in your job, which strategy do you think would be the most helpful to you in resolving the inequity? What tactics would you consider using?

Adams's Theory of Inequity is a logical approach to this problem. The resolution of inequity strategy could be to alter the input, to leave the organization, to alter the comparison other's input, or any of the ways of restoring equity. Students can also compare themselves in terms of their preferences for equity, benevolence, or entitlement.

5. Do you believe you can do a better job of working or do a better job of studying than you are currently doing? Do you think you would get more pay and benefits or better grades if you did a better job? Do you care about the rewards (or grades) in your organization (or university)?

The first portion of the question relates to tangible, self-motivated goals. Most students will answer yes to being able to do a better job. Occasionally students are so overloaded that they have assessed the obligations in their lives (work, school, and family) and determined that they will have to balance their efforts. The underlying theme is whether all of their current motivation rests in predicable, tangible, outcomes.