2015 List #1 Argumentation Fallacies
A fallacy is an incorrect reasoning, or a component of an argument that is demonstrably flawed in its logic, rendering the argument invalid in whole. We see fallacies everywhere in our daily life and being able to identify fallacies will allow you to be a more conscientious voter, consumer and overall citizen. Obviously, you want to avoid using fallacies in your own arguments as well.
1. Slippery Slope – This logical fallacy is the argument that a position is not consistent or tenable because accepting the position means that the extreme of the position must also be accepted.
2. Straw Man – “Fallacy of Extension” A straw man argument attempts to counter a position by attacking a different position – usually one that is easier to counter. The arguer invents a caricature of his opponent’s position – a “straw man” – that is easily refuted, but not the position that his opponent actually holds.
3. Red Herring – “Changing the Subject” A Red Herring is a fallacy in which an irrelevant topic is presented in order to divert attention from the original issue. The basic idea is to "win" an argument by leading attention away from the argument and to another topic. This sort of "reasoning" has the following form:
Topic A is under discussion.
Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A).
Topic A is abandoned.
This sort of "reasoning" is fallacious because merely changing the topic of discussion hardly counts as an argument against a claim.
4. Hasty Generalization – This fallacy is committed when a person draws a conclusion about a population based on a sample that is not large enough. It has the following form: Sample S, which is too small, is taken from population P.
Conclusion C is drawn about Population P based on S. The person committing the fallacy is misusing the following type of reasoning, which is known variously as Inductive Generalization, Generalization, and Statistical Generalization: X% of all observed A's are B''s. Therefore X% of all A's are Bs. The fallacy is committed when not enough A's are observed to warrant the conclusion. If enough A's are observed then the reasoning is not fallacious.
5. Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc – This fallacy follows the basic format of: A preceded B, therefore A caused B, and therefore assumes cause and effect for two events just because they are temporally related (the latin translates to "after this, therefore because of this").
6. Contradictory Premises – (also known as a logical paradox): Establishing a premise in such a way that it contradicts another, earlier premise.
7. Ad Misericordiam – “Appeal to pity, or Appeal to sympathy” – also “The Galileo Argument” someone tries to win support for an argument or idea by exploiting his or her opponent's feelings of pity or guilt. It is a specific kind of appeal to emotion.
8. False (Bad) Analogy –comparison of two situations that have nothing to do with one another. The arguer claims the situations are highly relatable, but they aren’t.
9. Hypothesis Contrary to Fact – This fallacy consists of offering a poorly supported claim about what might have happened in the past or future if circumstances or conditions were other than they actually were or are. The fallacy also involves treating hypothetical situations as if they were fact.
10. Poisoning the Well – Discrediting a person’s claim by presenting information (true or false) about the person. Person B attacking person A before Person A can make his/her claim.
11. Ad Hominem – “to or against the man” –. An ad hominem argument is any that attempts to counter another’s claims or conclusions by attacking the person, rather than addressing the argument itself. True believers will often commit this fallacy by countering the arguments of skeptics by stating that skeptics are closed minded.
12. Equivocation – allows a key word or term in an argument to shift its meaning during the course of the argument. The result is that the conclusion of the argument is not concerned with the same thing as the premise(s).
13. Circular Reasoning – The reasoner begins with what he or she is trying to end up with. The individual components of a circular argument will sometimes be logically valid because if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true, and will not lack relevance. Circular logic cannot prove a conclusion because, if the conclusion is doubted, the premise which leads to it will also be doubted.
14. Deductive reasoning- also called deductive logic, is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements regarding what is known to reach a logically certain conclusion. Deductive reasoning involves using given true premises to reach a conclusion that is also true. Deductive reasoning contrasts with inductive reasoning in that a specific conclusion is arrived at from a general principle. If the rules and logic of deduction are followed, this procedure ensures an accurate conclusion.
15. Inductive Reasoning – consists of inferring general principles or rules from specific facts.
Examples of Fallacies in Argumentation List #1 Practice
Fill in the blank the fallacy that is best being shown by the example statement. Once you are certain that all are correct, compose your own example of the fallacy.
A._____________________"If we legalize marijuana, then more people will try heroin."
B. _____________________"Von Daniken's books about ancient astronauts are worthless because he is a convicted forger and embezzler."
C. _____________________“I got a bill which had a big announcement about how some tax had gone up by 5%, and the costs would have to be passed on to me. But a quick calculation showed that the increased tax was only costing me a dime, while a different part of the bill had silently gone up by $10.”
D. _____________________"Before turning the floor over to my opponent, I ask you to remember that those who oppose my plans do not have the best wishes of the university at heart."
E. _____________________"The sign said 'fine for parking here', and since it was fine, I parked there."
F. _____________________“The pilot had to do something wrong to cause this approach accident, regardless of the sudden drop in airspeed just before the accident.”
G. _____________________"We must have a death penalty to discourage violent crime".
H. _____________________“You cannot speak French, and I cannot speak French, therefore nobody in Camas can speak French.”
I. _____________________"Every time we take Bill out on the town with us it is sure to rain."
J. _____________________"Senator Jones says that we should not fund the attack submarine program. I disagree entirely. I can't understand why he wants to leave us defenseless like that."
K._____________________"I did not murder my mother and father with an axe! Please don't find me guilty; I'm suffering enough through being an orphan."
L. _____________________"Minds, like rivers, can be broad. The broader the river, the shallower it is. Therefore, the broader the mind, the shallower it is."
M. _____________________“Fining you as a deterrent because you were speeding sometime before the accident; the fine is assumed to control your deliberate behavior to avoid unintentional results-- an accident.”
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