2. Characteristics of modern English.
According to the general division all languages fall into two groups: synthetic and analytical. Synthetic languages are characterized by some features: a noun has several cases, a verb has several persons and tenses and adjective changes according to the degrees of comparison. Analytical languages differ from synthetic. Most of them use articles and auxiliary verbs to form grammatical aspects of the words. English is supposed to be mostly analytical:
-continuous and perfect tenses are formed analytically by means of the auxiliary verbs which don`t have lexical meaning (this is a main thing in the analytical form)
-but the present indefinite and past tenses are formed synthetically by adding suffixes.
-most of forms are formed analytically both in passive and active voice.
Modern English being analytical at the whole comprises also not only the element of the syntactic type based on the flective form, but also elements of the root type based on the fixed word order (subject-predicate-object). “A hunter killed a bear. A bear killed a hunter”.
1.The levels of grammatical organization.
Grammar is a system of contact connections both of morphemes as the smallest meaningful units and sentences as the largest meaningful units within the speech complexes.
The types of connection are viewed from the levels of grammatical organization. These levels are:
1)positional or directly (code)
2)inventional
3)communicatively-styled
These levels render the main structural organization of language and express grammatical generalization.
They are inseparably interconnected creating a certain kind of a pyramid. Its bottom - the first level which is logical by its nature. This level is common to all the peoples irrespecting of the concrete language they speak. The second rank is second level of grammatical abstraction. Any notion as the meaningful essence of logical concept requires some language matter for its realization. That`s why the interaction of these two levels is one of the main laws of language functioning. The top of the pyramid is the third level which is based on delivering information. It is individual. It presupposes the act of communication but the language creating possibilities of each person are limited by:
1)the persons belonging to a definite language community
2)the concrete language `inventory which is the only source for language activities of any person
Each level has its own formalized meaning. It is correlation (the line between the thinking person and the outward objects) for the first, correctivity (gives the grammatical regulation of the line of identification correcting it in a national way of contacts) for the second and electiveness for the third level. The formalized sphere is the positional direction for correlation, the grammatical types for correctivity, the grammatical synonimy (speech complex) for electiveness.
3. The category of quantity and its essence.
The essence of this category renders the numerical relations from zero to endless. Zero represents the complete absence of qualitative essence. Quantitative zero is grammatically expressed either by the complete quantitative negation which doesn’t permit any remaining quality (nobody, nothing) or by the zero article. Thus zero is a form of manifesting the negative quantity endless being the oppositional side of the form representing the positive quantity. From the qualitative point of view it expresses quantity totally manifesting it in its gradation from 1 to 0. Within the extreme numericalgradations on positive quantity there exist additional gradation. They express the person`s individual appreciation of quantity it may be miserable (few, little), great (much, many), intermediate (some, several).
Thus the positive quantity operates with upper levels which may be represented:
1)on numerical account (from 1 to any quantitative indefiniteness)
2)in subjective numerical approach towards the object (from little to much)
3)in the extreme numerical gradations (least-most; first-last)
All these three derivations of quantity are united by the category of quantity which operates within its main quantitative oppositions (nothing as quantitative zero indicating the absence of quantity and all as quantitative endlessness indicating presence of quantity in its total amount). The category of quantity has universal character which embraces 3 subcategories of minor range: the category of number, measure, extremity.
4. The category of number.
It has the opposition of its meaning expressed discreetness-indiscreetness. Discreetness as a strong member of the opposition is based on singularity, plurality which form the category of number.
The category of number creates the foundation of all the parts of speech phonation. The oppositions observed here greatly removed because of the quantitative factor complexity that includes the various gradations capable to be perceived in their unity and separability (crew, family are used in the sing. and plur.).
The latter in the noun depends on the following 2 points:
1)the level of abstraction understood in the forms of the quantitative representation
2)the factor of the nouns` belonging to the class of an animateness/unanimateness
The nature of perception of an object in its quantitative connections owing to which any quality of the object is treated either:
1)as quantitatively fixed
2)as something that can not be quantitative fixed
The really existing opposition one unit-everything exceeds. It enters the positive part which represents the existing quantity. It displays itself as a particular case of a more general oppositive dichotomy: presence of quantity is opposed to absence of it.
Zero quantity is expressed on the syntactical level by means of negation (daren`t, shan`t) and by some morphological means (nothing, nobody).
On the one hand plurality and singularity are contrasted with the absence as a negative feature and thus they prove to be united by the same meaning (presence of quantity or a positive quantity). In this meaning we can say that singular manifistates itself as the meaning of plurality. In its very anture it is concrete which finds expression in a form of all countable nouns irrespective of their belonging to adverbs.
But the nature of plurality is a bit of different essence. Plurality deals with the usual formulae of addition according to which the some is always equal to plural number irrespective of the concrete number items. In this respect grammatical meaning of plurality has one common feature: It`s abstract quantity which can comprise the notion of singularity in the character of its generalizing abstract quantity. In this sense absence of quantity and plurality which comprises generalized singularity can be connected as abstract meanings opposed to the concrete meaning of singularity.
5.Meaning of singularity.
Singularity may be defined as a specific variant of positive quantity or infinite plurality. In the sphere of positive quantity there is a flowing transition of singularity into plurality which is realizes by the different levelness of singularity. Its entrance into the sphere of plurality gives it a shade of quantitative abstractness, which permits it to express the generalizingly abstract quantity. In connection was it that very determination of singularity should include the meaning of the completely represented object. That’s why the inner concept of singularity embraces 2 extreme levels of quantitative gradations and one intermediate level. The first extreme level as the initial one is equal to the countable unit (dog, tree). The intermediate level as a transitional one renders the summary generalizing singularity which is finally subdivided into 2 groups:
1)concretizing (furniture)
2)abstract (pleasure, milk)
The highest level of singularity due to its conceptually quantitative generalization and lack of concretness as if overpassing the limits of singularity. In this respect it transferes into the sphere of plurality where the abstractly quantitative foundation unites them together.
6. Meaning of plurality.
The grammatical meaning of plurality is to represent quantitative abstractness. It`s plural which permits to comprehend the singular meaning differently. Plural is also of the different degrees of its generalization.
There is:
1)The concretizing plurality which reflects the dual character of the object combined into one inseparable entirety (scissors, trousers, sales).
2)The indefinite quantitative plurality which is not correlated with singularity, because there`s the uncountable essence that cannot be represented in its quantitative separation (movables-движимоеимущество).
3)The abstract plurality which creates the grammatical forms overgrowing narrow units of the traditional numerical oppositions: singularity-plurality.
8.Quantity within the nominal system.
Within the nominal system the category of number occupies the predominant position. It is of the most resistance see here being the only category which remains unchangeable in any language evolutions. When the other cat. such as gender and case disappear functioning in the nominal system. It renders the quantitative relations directly and subordinates that temporal and spaceal relations while functioning within the verbal system. it renders the quantitative relations indirectly.
But even in the nominal system the cat. of number and it’s meaning is not renounces.
In substances it requires the repetition of the homogeneous objects when nothing more can be added. “a house+a house=houses”.
The article as a formal limitator of any substantive is also penetrated by the quantitative oppositions.
The leading meaning of it is concretizing the quantitative aspect which is based on polarization of the kind of zero as negative and qualitative- as positive.
The zero meaning is expressed by the zero article used with uncountable nouns where it is impossible to take any part from something which has neither size, nor volume.
Within the qualitative part any representation of quantity is not of independent kind being directly subjected.
10. Category of spreading duration.
1) the patriciple form.
1)the gerundial form
2)the continuous form
The suffix –ing is used in participle, gerund, continuous and in verbal nouns. The suffix –ing in patriciple form reveals uniformity of spreading the action within the temporal zone mocked by the predicate.
We saw him working in the garden.
Any sentence being a complete unit of thought is obligatory marked by the definite temporal plan concentrated as a rule in its predicate, everything else which may be represented as having the parallel duration should be also rendered.
She was in the room in dreamt about him. – Parallel development is being expressed by two different predicates revealing the idea of the person’s being and dreaming.
Such a duplication is not obligatory norm of representing the temporal parallelism. Moreover duplication is usually used in a grammar as a special stylistic means for creating a definite grammatical stress.
The greatest – by far the greatest.
But if the emphatic stress isn`t remarkable there exists special form in English which changing the structure of the sentence may create a definite parallelism of the temporal plan (she was in her room dreaming about him). In this example the simultaneousness of these two processes takes place as obvious. Thus somebody’s being is the first process and her dreaming is the second one occuring at the same period of time. In combination with a noun modified by an –ing form the meaning of temporal simultaneousness remains.
The simultaneous temporality concerns neither observed process nor the static features. It`s representing as something or somebody that reveals one of its potential features, just at the moment of its being in the plain or smiling state. That is of the moment of its fixation.
The temporal zone created by the present participle has an open character not only because of its dependence on its predicate but first of all because of its grammatical meaning.
In all the cases being used with the verbs or the nouns, it manifests the meaning of spreading duration which has no final aim in view of its term. Any limit of this duration may be put by the static and possessive features of the object itself. The perfect form of present participle creates a close form of temporality.
The perfect participle being closed has the final aim in view put forward by the very meaning of priority which exists only before the definite act takes place.
The indefinite participle being open has no limits of its duration except the object together with which the process of spreading duration becomes possible.
Having generalized the category of spreading duration the gerund reveals an additional grammatical nuance, the meaning of qualitative limitation.” I rely on her. I rely on Peter’s answering.”
Interruptiveness of spreading duration is limited in such cases being defined by the qualitative limitation due to which the qualifience scope may become narrow or wider as the scope of temporality.
Smoking- not limited. My smoking.- limited by scope. My today’s smoking– limited by period of time.
The gerund has the double plan expression of spreading duration.
1)the dependent plan which is determined by possible availability of the qualitative limitator.” my today`s writing”
2)The independent plan which is determined by the gerundial form itself (writing, being written) and which may be represented in the Passive.
The narrow grammatical character of grammatical form reproduces not only the general meaning of spreading duration equally common to this form, but gerund. The additional meaning is inherent only in continuous form which expresses its relative temporal independence of narrowing character of spreading duration rendered by its structure.
In any temporal zone (present/past) spreading an action is limited by a definite period which should be covered duratively and not interruptively. Detailing this temporal character may be increased by 2 factors:
1)additional introducing of the lexical indicators of a different character (now, at 7 o’clock)
2)durative uniformity which may be underlined by the indefinite moment, of the general temporal line to the predicates.”When i came in they were getting into the taxi.”
By the form of came we render the same temporal zone past time. One action is nearly crossing the other not being managed.
The general additional character of suffix –ing is observed towards the other aspectological point of view.” She has been reading a book.”
Such usage becomes possible due to generalizing of the suffix –ing. It’s used as a producer of the meaning of spreading duration. It also has additional grammatical specificity of the form as the producer of temporal independence of narrowing character of durative spreading. This additional meaning is preserved in any continuous form from the aspectological point of view.
11. The category of limitation.
It has a universal character. It serves to reflect the rescriptive relations of reality as language development is the considerable degree of the result limiting due to which the reality of being is expressed. It’s a terminative essence of limitation that defines not only the nominal system subdivision but the further unfounding into sentences and supersensual units and extrasegments. It’s the only category that embraces all levels of language abstraction : semantical, paradygmatical, syntacticall, lexical.
The semantical one is represented by subdividing different semantical, phonetical complexes into 2 unequal parts/ groups, each of which is united either by its positive/ negative charge.
The positive charge may be marked as D+, it has its final aim in view. (come) mostly consonants reveal the meaning.
The negative group is marked as D-, it has no final development aim. In their unity they compose the integral meaning .
The lexical level reserves this semantic subdivision representing it in words, each of which refers to a definite part of speech.
Thus the charge of the limitating potential being increased or weakened by its combination with a definite meaning gives a word as a vocabulary unit the same negative or positive limitating character. This character is obligatory built of unifying the groups which semantically have nothing in common.
Consequently such verbs as to come, to break, to begin, to drop expressing actions referred to positive form embrace different groups with its perspective.
1)perfective groups (to come, to break)
2)inchoative groups (begin)
3)momentory groups (drop, catch)
All these groups differ by their descriptive modifying quantitative character when the inchoative groups describe the process while the momentary and perfective ones presuppose its resultative and define it as quantitively a numeric amount.
The weak member of the opposition D- doesn`t oppose the verbs by their semantic stands because they represent that durational imperfectness which characterizes the meaning of unaspectness. Thus the limiting character within the verb system is represented by the meaning of aspectiveness.
12. Principles of sentence formation.
There exist some models of sentence formation.
1)SpbeO
This model is based on the meaning of being and centripetal direction when subject and object create an innally inseperable form (I (predicate) am a teacher (subject)).
2)SphaveO
This model is based on the meaning of possession and centrifugal direction when subject and object create 2 autonomic sentences.
Both the models may be transformed in speech where their functioning is brought into existence as the models of impersonal sentences as the secondary structure.Expressing the nominativeness determines the syntactical meaning of the subject , when the subject is correlated with a denotate of reality there appear personal sentences.” He has some difficulties in going on. The one must do his duty. The valley has some mineral springs.”When the subject has no correlation with a denotate of reality there appear non-personal sentences based on incompatibility (несовместимость). “It`s difficult for him to go home. One must do one`s duty. There are some mineral springs in the valley.”The non-personal sentences like the personal ones are formed by 2 ways of correlation: quantitative and qualitative.The personal and impersonal (безличные) sentences like the personal ones are formed by the qualitative of correlation and preserve the meaning of being. “The book is nice. It is a nice book.”The sentences built up by quantitative way of correlation preserve the meaning of possession based on copulation. “The valley has some mineral springs. There are some mineral springs in the valley.”The sentences built up by the subordinate way of correlation preserve the meaning of modality.“This one must do its duty. One must do one`s duty.”Difference between correlation and correctivity.