Chapter 11: Leadership and Followership 207
11 LEADERSHIP AND FOLLOWERSHIP
Chapter Scan
Leaders direct and guide followers in the organization, recognizing both roles are critical to the success of the organization. There is a positive relationship between leaders and followers in organizations, and a distinct difference between leadership and management. Leaders may be autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire in their approach. This chapter divides leadership theories into four schemes correlating to universal trait theories, universal behavioral theories, contingent trait theories, and contingent behavioral theories. Several theories are examined, and the relationship between leaders and followers is discussed. Specific emphasis is placed on the managerial grid, Fiedler's theory, path-goal theory, normative decision theory, and the situational leadership model.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. Define leadership and followership.
2. Discuss the differences between leadership and management.
3. Distinguish among transformational, transactional, and charismatic leaders.
4. Compare autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire leadership styles.
5. Explain initiating structure and consideration, leader behaviors, and the Managerial Grid.
6. Explain Fiedler's contingency theory of leadership.
7. Distinguish among the path-goal theory, the Vroom-Yetton-Jago theory, and the situational leadership model.
8. Discuss the characteristics of effective and dynamic followers.
Chapter 11: Leadership and Followership 207
key terms
The following key terms are introduced in Chapter 11:
leadership
formal leadership
informal leadership
followership
leader
manager
charismatic leadership
autocratic style
democratic style
laissez-faire style
initiating structure
consideration
P-oriented behavior
M-oriented behavior
Managerial Grid
organization man manager (5,5))
authority-obedience manager (9,1)
country club manger (1,9)
team manager (9,9)
impoverished manager (1,1)
least preferred coworker (LPC)
task structure
position power
leader-member relations
dynamic follower
THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I. LOOKING AHEAD: Howard Schultz's Leadership Role in Changing Starbucks Coffee
II. LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
Leaders are either formal leaders (officially sanctioned based on power and authority) or informal leaders (unofficial leadership accorded by other members of the organization). All leaders guide and direct the behavior of other people in the work environment. Leaders cannot accomplish goals without the assistance of followers. Followership is the process of being guided and directed by the leader.
Leaders may not be good managers, and vice versa. John Kotter views good managers as controlling complexity and leaders producing change. Others have said that managers manage things, leaders lead people. Another analogy that has been useful is: If you want to know how to build a bridge, ask a manager. If you want to know if you need a bridge built, ask a leader.
III. TYPE I UNIVERSAL TRAIT THEORIES
These trait theories were the first types of theories proposed.
A. Physical Attributes, Personality, and Ability
Physical attributes that were mentioned as leadership traits are height, weight, physique, energy, health and appearance. There are biases for and against certain types of physical attributes, yet the research does not indicate these attributes are inherently better and a leadership characteristic. Personality characteristics have been useful, and ability measurements are the closest match of the three categories to being relevant. However, trait research has not been conclusive, which has led to the other approaches to determine leadership styles.
B. Transformational Leadership
Transformational leaders lead through charisma, vision, and example.
C. Leaders as Distinct Personalities
Zaleznik makes an argument that leaders and managers are have distinct types of personalities.
Leaders agitate for change and new approaches, while managers advocate stability and the status quo. Leaders are similar in mission to transformational approaches. Many organizational members have a stake in the existing structure, so attempting change is a definite challenge for leaders. Managers spend time planning, organizing and controlling, while leaders set directions, align people and motivate them to action.
Leaders cannot achieve their goals without the support of followers.
C. Women Leaders
An important question is: do women and men lead differently? Research suggests that female leaders act out leadership as an individualized, interpersonal process.
D. Charismatic Leadership
Charismatic leadership is characterized by personal abilities and talents that have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers. Not all charismatic leaders are the stereotypical version that students may visualize as negative.
IV. TYPE II UNIQUE BEHAVIORALTHEORIES
Type II theories focus on leaders actions and behaviors.
A. Leadership Style and Emotional Climate at Work
Kurt Lewin divided leadership styles into three categories, autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire styles. Autocratic leaders use strong, directive, controlling actions to enforce the rules, regulations, and relationships in the work environment. Students may view military leadership as autocratic, although this is a stereotype that has changed. A democratic leader takes collaborative, reciprocal, interactive actions with followers concerning the work and work environment. The laissez-faire leader fails to accept the responsibility of the position. Many students confuse laissez-faire and democratic leadership styles.
B. Leadership Behaviors
Leadership behavior is often determined by the LBDQ, which compares initiating structure and consideration. A leader with an initiating structure style defines and organizes work relationships and roles, and is clear about ways of getting things done. In contrast, the consideration style leader aims at creating a nurturing, friendly, warm working relationship.
C. Leadership Styles in Japan
The 30-year program founded in Japan studied U.S. leadership approaches. The Performance-Maintenance Theory of Leadership categorized leaders into P-oriented behavior or M-oriented behavior. P-oriented behavior encourages a fast work pace, emphasizing good quality and high accuracy, while maintaining concern for rules. In contrast, M-oriented leaders are sensitive to employees' feelings, try to reduce stress, and appreciate follower contributions.
F. The Managerial Grid
Blake and Mouton developed the Managerial Grid based on the Ohio State leadership studies. The Managerial Grid is a matrix that divides types of leaders into levels of concern for either production or concern for people. The five categories of the Grid are: organization man manager (5,5), a manager who maintains the status quo; authority-obedience manager (9,1), a manager who emphasizes efficient production; country-club manager (1,9) a manager who creates a happy, comfortable work environment; team manager (9,9) a manager who builds a highly productive team of committed people; and impoverished manager (1,1) a manager who exerts just enough effort to avoid being fired.
The grid addresses both the behavior and the attitude of the leader. The grid would evaluate the team leader as the best style of leader behavior.
V. TYPE III CONTINGENCY THEORIES
Type III theories of leadership are concerned with identifying the situationally specific conditions in which leaders with particular traits are effective. The difference in Type III and Type I theories is that these traits must be in relationship with the situation, rather than the trait being the overriding impact of the style.
A. Fiedler's Contingency Theory
Fiedler's theory espouses that leaders are task-oriented or relationship-oriented, depending on how the leaders obtain their primary need gratification. Task-oriented leaders are primarily gratified by accomplishing tasks, whereas relationship-oriented leaders are gratified by good, comfortable interpersonal relationships. The outcome of the style has to do with the situation in which it is enacted. To determine the fit, Fiedler developed a scale to determine the type of individual a leader would prefer working with. The LPC, or least preferred co-worker is the individual that you would least like to work with over your career. Task structure refers to the number and clarity of rules, regulations, and procedures for getting the work done. Position power refers to the leader’s legitimate authority to evaluate and reward performance, punish errors, and demote group members. The quality of leader-member relations is measured by the Group-Atmosphere Scale.
B. Leadership Effectiveness
Fiedler proposes that it is unlikely that a leader will change behavior to fit the situation. Consequently, if possible, the situation should be altered to complement the leader's style. This contingency theory emphasizes the contribution of the leader's situation. The situation has three dimensions: task structure, position power, and leader-member relations. A favorable leadership situation is one that has a structured task, strong position power, and good leader-member relations. Task-oriented leaders are effective in either highly favorable or highly unfavorable situations. Relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in moderately favorable situations.
VI. TYPE IV SITUATIONAL BEHAVIOR THEORIES
Type IV theories identify the specific leader behaviors that are most effective in specific leadership situations. As such, they are classified as contingent behavioral theories.
A. The Path-Goal Theory
Path-goal theory considers the behavior and the situation for the leader. However, the path-goal approach would support that leaders can change their style and behavior. This theory is based on the expectancy theory of motivation. Path-goal divides leadership behavior into directive leadership, supportive leadership, participative and achievement-oriented leadership styles.
B. Vroom-Yetton-Jago Normative Decision Theory
The normative decision theory refers to a sequential set of rules that should be followed to determine the level of participation required by a leader in a given situation. This theory gives credence to authoritarian approaches as well as democratic approaches, specifying that through a decision tree, the best decision style will be apparent. This style is based on five degrees of participation from followers. This theory was presented in Chapter 9, so it will not be new to students.
C. The Situational Leadership Model
The maturity level of the followers dictates the role of the leader in the situational leadership model. The positive side of this model is that it focuses on the followers as the key decision variable for the leader to determine a style that is appropriate. The point of this model is that when followers become mature, less task-oriented and relationship-oriented behavior is needed. Leadership can be delegated to mature followers.
VII. GUIDELINES FOR LEADERSHIP
Although there is not one definitive style that is preferable in all situations, there are guidelines that are useful in most leadership approaches. Leaders and organizations should appreciate talents and variety among leaders, since there is no single best style of leadership. However, there are organizational preferences, and leaders should match their style with the organizational culture. In addition, leaders should vary their leadership style to fit the situation. Finally, leaders are likely to be good followers.
VIII. FOLLOWERSHIP
This is a relatively new approach and topic, so the research accompanying the topic is scant. Followers have been viewed historically as either passive or autonomous. New concepts of empowerment and self-managed work team have altered the views of the follower role and have increased the role's importance in organizations.
A. Types of Followers
Followers are classified as active or passive, and as independent critical thinkers versus dependent, uncritical thinkers. Effective followers practice self-management and self-responsibility.
Servant leadership is an active, powerful, dynamic form of leadership that at times doubles for followership. There are five components of a leader as servant. The leader as servant (1) takes the people and their work seriously, (2) listens and takes the cues from the followers, (3) heals wounds of the followers and the team, (4) is self-effacing, and (5) is a steward.
B. The Dynamic Follower
A dynamic follower is a follower who is A responsible steward of his or her job, is effective in managing the relationship with the boss, and practices self-management.
The Challenge 11.2 is a query whether or not students are dynamic followers.
IX. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN LEADERSHIP
Globalization will increase the information available on differences in leadership styles. Limited research has indicated that there are great differences in styles among ethnic cultures.
X. MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: LEADERS AND FOLLOWERS AS PARTNERS
XI. LOOKING BACK: Focusing the Shooting Stars
CHAPTER SUMMARY
· Leadership is the process of guiding and directing the behavior of followers in organizations. Followership is the process of being guided and directed by a leader. Leaders and followers are companions in these processes.
· A leader creates meaningful change in organizations, whereas a manager controls complexity. Charismatic leaders have a profound impact on their followers.
· Autocratic leaders create high pressure for followers, whereas democratic leaders create healthier environments for followers.
· Two distinct dimensions of leader behavior are labeled initiating structure and consideration, alternatively labeled P-oriented behavior and M-oriented behavior, respectively, in Japan.
· The five styles in the Managerial Grid are organization man manager, authority-obedience manager, country club manager, team manager, and impoverished manager.
· According to the contingency theory, task-oriented leaders are most effective in highly favorable or highly unfavorable leadership situations, and relationship-oriented leaders are most effective in moderately favorable leadership situations.
· The path-goal theory, Vroom-Yetton-Jago theory, and situational leadership model say that a leader should adjust his or her behavior to the situation and should appreciate diversity among followers.
· Effective, dynamic followers are competent and active in their work, assertive, independent thinkers, sensitive to their bosses' needs and demands, and responsible self-managers. Servant leadership and dynamic followership go together.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: suggested answers
1. Define leadership and followership. Distinguish between formal leadership and informal leadership.
Leaders guide and direct the behaviors of followers in organizations. On the other hand, followers allow the guidance of the leader. Formal leadership is sanctioned by power and authority. Informal leadership is accorded to an individual by other members of the organization.
2. Discuss transformational and charismatic leadership. Would you expect these styles of leadership to exist in all cultures? Differ across cultures?
Kotter distinguishes managers as involved with processes such as planning, organizing and controlling. On the other hand, leaders are involved with processes that set directions for the organization, align people with directions through empowerment, and motivate the organizational followers to action. Charisma is a form of interpersonal attraction, and is an attribute found in leaders. This trait allows leaders to be persuasive based on trust and acceptance. Charismatic leaders tend to be self-confident. Transformational and charismatic leaders may exist in all cultures; however, the types of behaviors exhibited by these leaders may differ across cultures.
3. Describe the differences between autocratic and democratic work environments. How do they differ from a laissez-faire workplace?
Autocratic and democratic are usually easy for students to differentiate. Autocratic leaders are typically forceful personalities that are rigid with rule enforcement. In contrast, democratic leaders appreciate collaboration, and interact frequently with followers. Laissez-faire leaders abdicate responsibility and their indifference forces others into ambiguous situations.