PHRASES
1.) Noun Phrase (NP)
→ structure = d – m – h – q
→The tall girl is sitting here.
2.) Verb Phrase (VP)
→ auxiliary verb (more) + full verb (one)
→She goes home.FV
→ It will bereconstructed.AV+FV
3.) Prepositional Phrase→ consists of a preposition + prepositional complement
→The book is onthe table.PP=prep.+Cp
4.) Adjectival Phrase (AdjP)→ (may be) intensifier + adjective
→She is tall. / She is very tall.
5.) Adverbial Phrase (AdvP)→ (may be) intensifier + adverb
→It is hard. / It is much more harder.
CLAUSE ELEMENTS (vetné členy)
1.) Subject →S (kto? Čo?) – podmet tak ako v slovenčine
2.) Verb →V (čo robí? čo sa s ním deje?) – prísudok – v AN je to verb phrase
3.) Object
a)Object direct – Od – (koho? čo?) – there is just one Od in a sentence
– when there is an Oi after and Od it is an adverbial
– Igavea bookto him.( S V Od Adverbial)
b)Object indirect – Oi – (komu? čomu?) – always must precede object direct
– Od follows Oi
– Igavehima book.(S V Oi Od)
c) Object prepositional – Op – it is an Od with a preposition
– We are talking about him. Op
4.) Complement
a) Subject Complement – Cs– it has the same referent as Subject
– Cs always link with Subject with linking or copular verbs
= is, to be, became, turned, seems = just on verb
– Cs made either a NP or a AdjP
– Sheisa student.( S V Cs)
b)Object Complement – Co – it must always follow an Od
– IfindEnglisheasy.(S V Od Co)
5.) Adverbial → príslovkové určenie miesta, času, spôsobu, príčiny (Adverb = príslovka)
6.) Apposition→ prístavok →My older brother, Peter, is not here.
COUNT. / UNCOUNT.Award / Air
Accident / Anger
Breath / Architecture
Bridge / Behaviour
Bottle / Cash
Candidate / Clothing
Coin / Cooking
Cough / Courage
Ceasefire / Education
Chair / Equipment
Drop / Engineering
Experiment / Fun
Exam / Flu
Fact / Harm
Finger / Information
Gadget / Lightering
Garment / Leisure
Guard / Laughter
Injury / Luck
Job / Luggage
Joke / Music
Journey / News
Kitchen / Peace
Plan / Permit
Permission / Poetry
Poem / Progress
Report / Research
Remark / Safety
Reaction / Travel
Smile / Traffic
Shower / Work
Suitcase / Water
Table / Weather
Thunderstorm / Warmth
Tune
University
Vehicle
Word
THE SYSTEM OF NOUN CLASSES
1.COMMON
COUNT
- concrete (table, book, pig, chair, bun)
-abstract (dead, mind, difficulty, dream)
UNCOUNT
-concrete (milk, butter, gold)
-abstract (music, passion, sadness, pain,
laziness, time, love feelings)
BOTH
-concrete (paper-material, stones)
-abstract (work, clothes)
2. PROPER(Henry, London, the Thames)
NOUNS THAT CAN TAKE –S GENITIVE
-we use -s genitive if it is about people
-it is a possessive, an inflected case
used with :
- personal names(Peter´s brother)
- personal nouns(student´s book)
- collective nouns – when we mean people
(government’s decision)
- higher animals(horse´s tail, dog´s food)
- geographical names, institutional names
– when we mean people (London’s history)
- temporal nouns (three week’s holiday)
- some more nouns connected with
human activity(my garden’s duties)
- following nouns – usually phrases:
sake, edge (God´s sake, forest´s edge)
SYSTEM OF ENGLISH PRONOUNS
1.CENTRAL PRONOUNS
Personal - I, me, you, he, she, it, they, them, us, him, her
Reflexive - myself, yourself, themselves
Possessive - my / mine, you / yours, their / theirs
2.RELATIVE PRONOUNS
-which, that – for inanimate
-who, whom – for animate
-whose – for both
3.INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
-what, whom
-which – for inanimate
-who – for animate
4.DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
-this, those, these, that
-they function as determiners or as functional pronouns
5.INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
-they have general meaning, they are non-specific
-most of them occurs in compounds
-they function as determiners or pronouns
A)personal – universal (both, each, every)
assertive (several, one) / non-assertive (any)
B) negative (nobody, neither)
CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF ADJECTIVES
- There are no special forms of adjectives,
but many of them can be identified by suffixes:
Ө, -able, -ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -al, -ic, -y
(comfortable, playful, useless, greyish, dangerous,
seasonal, scientific, dirty)
- Characteristic features of the adjectives can be:
1.)attributive position (as modified head)an ugly painting
2.)predicative function (Cs, Co) -- the painting is ugly
3.)some adjectives can be premodified by an intensifier
the children are very happy
4.)some adj can have comparative and superlative forms
– e.g. colours are disputable the children are happier now
There are central adjectives
– they function as attributive or predicative (pretty, tall)
and peripheral adjectives
– they can be only attributive(you poor man)or only predicative
(most common referring to the health of an animate being)
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
- normally there is a regular difference of form between an adj. and an adver.
in that the adverb is distinguished by its –ly suffix
( a rapid car = adjective / he drove rapidly = adverb)
- some adjectives and adverbs have the same form without the –ly suffix
( Bill has a fast car= adjective / Bill drove fast = adverb )
- sometimes there is also an –ly adverb form but with a different meaning
Have you seen her lately?
- there are some words in –ly that can function both as adjectives and as adverbs
I caught an early train= adjective / We finished early today= adverb
- sometimes there are 2 forms – one is either adjective or adverb
and the other is an adverb with an –ly suffix
Take a deep breath= adjective / Breath deep= adverb / Breath deeply= adverb
ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS
nouns commonly function as premodifiers of other nouns,
but they do not share other characteristics of most adjectives:
a)there is no corresponding predicative function
(the bus station – NOT the station is bus)
b)they cannot be modified by very ( NOT a very bus station)
c)they can not take comparison (NOT a busser station)
d)there is an article contrast (the bus / a bus)
e)there is a number contrast (on bus / two busses)
f)there is a genitive inflection (the student’s essays)
g)there is a premodification by an adjective (the young student)
h)there is a correspondence to a propositional phrase
with the noun as complement garden tool – tools for the garden
CONVERSION – some items can be both adjectives and nouns
– they have the same form, but they are another word classes
a)there are some adjectives that are in noun form
He is a criminal. / This is the criminal record.
b)there are some nouns that function as adjectives
school x school yard
girl x girl friend
Worcester porcelain x this porcelain is Worcester
ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES
there are many adjectives that have the same
suffixes as participles in –ing or –ed
--- they have a verb form --- boared / boaring
attributive - his views were surprising
predicative -his surprising views
- there are corresponding verb forms
amuse – amusing – amused
- when there is a corresponding verb, attributively
used –ed forms usually have a passive meaning
lost property – property that has been lost
- there are no corresponding verb forms
- they include forms in –ed that have no corresp. verbs
she is talented , she is gifted
the results were unexpected / the unexpected results
- when there are no corresponding verbs
– the forms are obviously not participles
- sometimes there are corresponding verb forms,
but they have different meaning
she is very calculating = adjective
she is calculating our salaries = participle
- some adjectives are compound
good-looking, heart-breaking, open-minded, easy-going
- some verbs have different forms for verbal use and for adj.
verbal use – he was drunk / adjective – I saw a drunken man
- some adjectives have pronunciation [ed]
beloved, aged, naked, witched
THE USE OF ARTICLES IN UNIQUE REFERENCE
→ all names, any kind of names
Personal names:
“zero” article
– usual (Peter, Paul Smith, Mr.Brown, Lady Di, George Bush)
– president + name (president Bush)
common nouns behave as proper nouns
–mother, father, sister → they behave as proper nouns
– calendar items – days, months, seasons, Christmas, Easter
“the” article– formally used (the Lady Di, the President)
–“the” Jane Brown – významná
“a” article – “a” Jane Brown – nejaká
Geographical names:
1.)if it is one name -“zero” article (Slovakia, Bratislava)
2.)if the names are in Plural -“the” article
(the Bahams, the Netherlands)
3.)of constructions -“the” article (the Isle of Man)
4.) the name consist of more words and one
is a common noun -„the“ article (the USA)
5.)names of institutions, streets
-might be broken(ComeniusUniversity)
6.)rivers -“the” article (the Danube)
7.)lakes -“zero” article (Lake Windermere)
8.)mountains -“zero” article (Mount Everest)
9.)mountain groups -“the” article (the High Tatras, the Alps)
MEANING OF GENITIVE
possessive genitive (Mrs Johnson´s coat. / The ship´s funnel.)
subjective genitive (Jane’s opinion. / The parents´ consent)
objective genitive (the family’s support)
genitive of origin (Dickens´ room)
descriptive genitive (children’s room)
genitive of measure – temporal (three-week’s holiday, three-kilo’s baby)
appositive genitive (the river of the Danube, the city of Bratislava)
genitive of attribute (The victim’s outstanding courage.)
the grammatical status of the G.
Genitives can function as:
a)determiners
My handsome cousin’s new briefcase.
That old gentleman’s son)
b)modifiers
They attend a women’s university.
She lives in a quaint old shepherd’s cottage.)
c)independent genitive
Jennifer’s is the only face I recognize
He has a devotion to work like his father’s.)
d)post-genitive / double-genitive
A sister of George’s is coming to stay with us.
GENERIC REFERENCE
B)COUNT NOUNS
-a tiger (any tiger)
-the tiger (one typical representative)
-tigers (most frequently used)
-limited grammar in generic reference
-“the…..of” constructions
(the students of university)
-“…..from” constructions
(students from Slovakia)
C)NON-COUNT NOUNS
-“I like….” constructions
-milk, water, chocolate, tea
NATIONALITIES
-the Slovaks are …
-the English are …
-Englishmen are …
D)ADJECTIVES AS A NP HEAD
- the rich are…→ whole class of rich people
-the evil is …
-the better is …
-the public is …
E)GENERAL SENSE
- very generally
the police, the countryside, the public
the press, the media, the seaside
SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF ADJ.
stativexdynamic
-adjectives are characteristically stative
-dynamic are that, that are susceptible to
subjective measurement
-stative adjectives cannot be used with the
progressive aspect or with the imperative
He´s being tall –NOT Be tall!
- adjectives that can be used dynamically
include: brave, calm, cheerful, conceited, cruel,
foolish, friendly, funny, good, greedy,
jealous, naughty, noisy, tidy, helpful
gradable (descriptors) xnongradable (classifiers)
- farby → výnimka red--reder???
- most adjectives are gradable
- gradability is manifested through comparison
tall – taller – tallest
beautiful – more beautiful – most
- gradability is manifeste through modification
by intensifiers
very tall, so beautiful, extremely useful
- all dynamic and most stative adj. are gradable
- denominal adj. (atomic scientist) are nongradable
- adj. denoting provenance (British) are nongradable
inherent (pravý v.) xnon-inherent (prenesený v.)
inherent adj. applies to the referent of the object directly
a wooden cross= a cross made of wood
- the adjective has some type of metaphoric meaning
a wooden actor= the actor acts not naturally on stage
a perfect alibi / a perfect stranger
golden cross / a heart of gold