1 Developments in Rome

Rome: 264 – 133 BC

Option K Rome: 264 – 133 BC

Principal Focus: Through an investigation of the archaeological and written sources for

Rome: 264 – 133 BC, students learn about significant developments, forces and relevant

historiographical issues that shaped the historical period.

Students learn about:

1 Development in Rome

·  role of the Senate and political alliances; the urban population and the rise of the equestrians

·  establishment of the extortion court and changes to the magistracies

·  economic and social conditions and problems; the ‘latifundia’, growth of slavery and decline of the free peasantry

·  role and contribution of Roman leaders: Fabius Maximus, Scipio Africanus, Flamininus, Scipio Aemilianus, Cato the Elder

2 Roman expansion

·  causes, course and consequences of the First Punic War

·  impact of wars of expansion on Roman politics, economy and society

·  the spread, influence and impact of Hellenism

·  causes, course and consequences of the Second Punic War: Trebia, Ticinus, Lake Trasimenae, Cannae and Zama

·  role of Carthaginian leaders: Hamilcar Barca, Hasdrubal, Hannibal

·  consequences of Punic Wars; destruction of Carthage 146 BC

·  important changes in Roman naval and land warfare, military recruitment

·  political conditions and problems in Rome, Italy and the empire

·  provincial administration, taxation and tribute

1.  Developments in Rome

Role of the Senate and political alliances; the urban population and the rise of the equestrians.

Role of the senate and political alliances

Government in 264 AD

•  Roman government in 264 BC was a mixture of:

•  Democratic,

•  Aristocratic,

•  And oligarchic elements.

•  This had come about because the people (plebeians) had demanded greater political participation after their assistance in Rome’s wars of expansion.

The struggle for orders

•  The struggle for orders in Rome was the struggle by the plebeians (people) to have political and social equality with the patricians (landowners).

•  This created the mix of democracy (people) and oligarchy (landowners) in the Senate.

Divisions of powers

•  The magistrates were ordered as follows:

•  2 Consuls: They commanded the army.

•  8 Praetors: Judges which decided law suits.

•  4 Aediles: Administrators of Roman city-state.

•  12 Quaestors: Financial administrators.

•  These were 1 year (12 month) appointments.

Magistrate careers

•  Cursus honorum – these positions made up the ladder of promotion which Roman leaders followed.

•  Collegiate Principle – these offices also used the collegiate principle, whereby there where at least two people working in each role at once.

Dictator

•  This was a single person role.

•  Dictators were only elected during an emergency, such as when Hannibal invaded Italy.

•  Dictators were given the task of co-ordinating the state in that time of crisis.

Censors

•  Two appointed at a time.

•  Their role was to assign citizens to social positions.

•  These positions were based on property qualifications – how much land you owned.

People’s assemblies

•  These originated in 287 BC, when the plebeians withdrew their support from the army because of inequalities.

•  The dictator Hortensius allowed them greater participation in politics.

•  These were then known as the Hortensian Laws.

•  Two in existence:

•  1. Comitia centuriata

•  Dominated by wealthy class,

•  Power to make war and agree on terms for peace,

•  Elected some magistrates.

Tribunes of the people

•  Office of Tribune was created as result of struggle for orders – the plebeians wanting more equality.

•  10 appointed at a time.

•  Roles:

•  Defend lives and property of the plebeians;

•  Veto laws and actions of magistrates if needed;

•  Restrictions:

•  All 10 Tribunes had to agree when making decisions (unanimous decisions).

•  2. Comitia tributa

•  Democratic membership from the people,

•  Made laws sometimes without senate approval.

•  Elected plebeian tribunes.

The Constitution

•  Established in 264 BC.

•  A set of practices rather than a written document.

•  Allowed the plebeians to have the rights of equality theta they desired in the struggle of the orders.

•  This was needed because the plebeians often had to leave their farms and fight for Rome as it expanded.

•  They made the sacrifices in war that made their demands real.

•  The plebeians threatened to revolt against their commanding officers if they did not get more rights.

The plebs

•  The plebeians were able, after getting greater rights, to:

•  Elect their own tribunes.

•  Intermarry with patricians.

•  Hold some religious offices.

•  Make laws in the comitia tributa.

Rise of the urban population

·  After the First Punic War Rome became a major centre.

·  It had a large slave population.

·  It was also a major trading center and marketplace.

·  Many rural peasants also moved to Rome in search of work and wealth.

·  Hence Rome’s population swelled.

·  A wealthy business class rose up in Rome after these developments.

·  Publicans developed, who were private contractors for building and development.

·  Money-lending and banking also developed as a business.

·  Shipping of goods also became a profitable business.

·  Most manufacture was for local consumption

Rise of the equestrians

•  This was a social group composed of wealthy businessmen who were known for their horse ownership.

•  They were ranked between the oligarchs of the senate, and the working population.

•  During wars they were assigned to the cavalry by the censors.

•  They invested heavily in land.

•  They were usually apolitical (which means they stayed out of politics) unless their business interests were under threat.

•  Although they were wealthy they had little influence in Rome’s politics because they did not have family prestige.

Summary

•  Division of powers in Rome at 264 BC:

•  Senate

•  Magistrates

•  Dictator (if needed)

•  Censors

•  People’s assemblies

•  Tribunes of the people

• 

Establishment of the extortion court and changes to the magistracies

Establishment of the extortion court

•  As Rome expanded it included many more provinces.

•  These provinces had to be controlled and administered.

•  Tax, troops and trade all had to be sourced from provinces.

•  Provinces also had to reflect the legal and social culture of Rome.

•  Therefore, the Senate appointed governor's to oversee these provinces.

•  Governor’s were open to corruption and accusations of hardship from their citizens.

•  To address this the Senate established the Extortion court.

•  When a governor returned to Rome, the Court would examine his accounts; his claims for military exploits; his trade arrangements.

•  The Court was established in 149 BC.

•  If the citizens of a province felt they were being exploited by their governor they would approach the Senate and the Court.

•  Citizens could use the Court to appeal for damages.

Structure of the Court:

•  Fifty jurors elected from the Senate

•  Headed by a Praetor

•  No appeal above the Court

•  Led to the creation of new provinces because the Senate believed that they would run more smoothly with the Court in place

Problems with the Court:

•  Costs of long trials,

•  Difficult to secure testimony as many witnesses were reluctant to come forward,

•  Penalties difficult to enforce, as they were mostly demands to repay provinces and this could not be done,

•  Court officials were penalising their own, which meant that impartiality was lacking.

•  The practical failure of the Court meant that for many years Roman provinces suffered from exploitation by:

•  Governors AND

•  Tax collectors.

Changes to the magistracies

·  Magistrates and elections:

·  Magistrates could reject the candidate of an election if he did not approve with him or his policies.

·  Magistrates were used by Senators, as senators could not own ships or engage in public contracts. Magistrates could help them to influence the public through other means.

Magistrates in the provinces:

·  At first provinces such as Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia were ruled by regular magistrates.

·  This proved ineffective, and so special magistrates were assigned to these areas.

·  Two extra Praetors were elected each year for this reason.

·  Changes needed in the Magistrates because they were designed to handle city administration;

·  But they were not well appointed to dealing with imperial administration over a large empire.

economic and social conditions and problems; the ‘latifundia’, growth of slavery and decline of the free peasantry

–  As the Roman Empire expanded there were changes in economic and agricultural life.

–  Great Estates arose which were operated by slave labour.

–  This also resulted from a decline in free peasantry in Rome, who were more expensive to pay; and who moved to cities such as Rome for work.

–  The great estates were large farms.

They arose because of the following:

–  The owners of small farms had increased military commitments.

–  Owners of small farms moved to the cities to seek wealth.

–  Cheaper slave labour became more available.

–  Hannibal’s armies devastated the countryside and pushed small landowners out.

–  Rome gave public land to private citizens as it expanded.

–  Occupants would farm this land and pay rent to Rome.

Effects of Hannibal’s invasion on land:

–  He had destroyed around 400 communities;

–  The land they had lived on was left un-owned and depopulated.

–  Also, the Romans confiscated the land of his allies.

–  The Senatorial class invested in land because contracting and banking were not seen as worthy occupations.

–  More land became available to them as the conquests were successful.

–  The governing class also bought up small farms to add to their large landholdings.

Changes in agriculture and farming:

–  Grain was farmed less and less because it could be bought from overseas colonies, and because it damaged the soil.

–  Vineyards; olive groves and market gardens and grazing land became referred farming.

–  Farming became more businesslike and was designed for a market rather than private consumption.

Growth of Slavery

–  Wealthy land proprietors owned many farms across Italy.

–  Slaves made labour very cheap.

–  Slaves could not be called up for military service.

–  Slaves could not claim legal rights when treated poorly.

–  Slaves…

–  Rome’s victories flooded the Mediterranean with slaves.

–  Between 200 and 150 BC: 250,000 slaves were brought (prisoners of wars) to Italy.

–  Slaves often worked in chains and lived in prison barracks at night.

The decline of free peasantry

–  As the Latifundia (great estates) grew the peasantry declined.

–  Rich landowners bought, bullied and coerced small farmers out of their land.

–  Foreign wars were also a burden on the peasantry, as they were conscripted into the army.

–  Roman armies were mainly recruited from the rural population.

–  Once in the army soldiers would be away from their for a long time, perhaps several years at a time.

–  This meant he was unable to look after his finances and land.

–  Many returning soldiers sold their land to rich landowners to pay debts, or because the farm was not profitable.

–  Many returning soldiers also migrated to Rome or other cities were work was plentiful.

–  Other returning soldiers migrated to newly conquered lands where they had won land as part of their payment for fighting.

–  The Tribunes attempted at various times to save the peasants from the army draft, but were not successful in the long run.

–  As Rome expanded it needed more troops to remain in conquered lands;

–  Also, the army became a career in itself.

–  The effects of the great estates (latifundia) on Roman society did not go unnoticed by the Senate.

–  They brought in laws to limit land ownership to small portions (310 acre according to Livy).

–  These laws were often difficult to enforce,

–  Wealthy landowners often did not obey them.

–  Once occupied, land became a hereditary possession (handed down to children).

Fabius Maximus, Scipio Africanus, Flamininus, Scipio Aemilianus, Cato the Elder:

Fabius maximus

•  His cautious delaying tactics (hence the nickname “delayer,”) during the early stages of the Second Punic War (218–201).

•  This gave Rome time to recover its strength and take the offensive against the invading Carthaginian army of Hannibal.

•  A critic of Scipio.

•  Accused Scipio of allowing his troops to mutiny (a small number of Scipio’s men had mutinied when Scipio feel ill).

•  Was elected to five consulships, in 233, 228, 215, 214, and 209.

Scipio africanus

•  Saved his father’s life in battle at Ticinus.

•  Fought at Cannae and survived battle.

•  When he became general he lead a force of ships and troops and attacked Carthage in Spain.

•  He attacked the city of New Carthage in Spain.

•  Scipio studied Hannibal’s tactics and copied them.

•  Once he defeated Carthage on Spanish soil he returned to Rome victorious and reminded the Senate of his achievements.

•  He was awarded the province of Sicily.

•  He was elected Consul and took his troops to invade North Africa and threatened the city of Carthage itself.

•  He defeated Hannibal at Zama.

Flaminius

•  Lived in Greece for many years, signing treaties and alliances to secure Rome’s dominance.

•  Considered a philhelene; someone influenced and appreciative of Greek culture.

•  He was highly popular among Greeks.

•  In 223 Flaminius was elected consul for the first time, and with Publius Furius Philus he forced the Gauls to submit to Rome, creating the province ofCisalpine Gaul.

•  In the aftermath of theFirst Punic War, Flaminius, anovus homo, was the leader of a reform movement which sought to reorganize state land inItaly. Astribune of the plebsin 232 BC, he passed aplebiscitewhich divided the land south ofAriminum, which had been conquered from theGaulsdecades before, and gave it to poor families whose farms had fallen into ruin during the war. The Senate was opposed to this and he did not consult them, contrary to the constitution and tradition.