1. An End to the Skin Color Controversy? (답은 맨마지막에 있으며,안보이도록 일부러 간격을 조정했습니다..)
A. Ten years ago, while at the University of Western Australia, anthropologist Nina Jablonski was asked to give a lecture on human skin. As an expert on primate evolution, she decided to discuss the evolution of skin color, but when she went through the literature on the subject she was dismayed. Some theories advanced before the 1970s tended to be racist, and others were less than convincing. White skin, for example, was reported to be more resistant to cold weather, although groups like the Inuit (Eskimos) are both dark and particularly resistant to cold.
Jablonski and her husband set about formulating the first comprehensive theory of skin color. Their findings, published in a recent issue of the Journal of Human Evolution, show a strong and somewhat predictable correlation between skin color and the strength of sunlight across the globe. But they also show a deeper, more surprising process at work: Skin color, they say, is largely a matter of vitamins.
Jablonski begins by assuming that our earliest ancestors had fair skin just like chimpanzees, our closest biological relatives. Between 4.5 million and 2 million years ago, early humans moved from the rain forest and onto the East African plains. There, they not only had to cope with more exposure to the sun, but they also had to work harder to gather food. Mammalian brains are particularly vulnerable to overheating: A change of only five or six degrees can cause heatstroke. So our ancestors had to develop a better cooling system.
B. The answer was sweat, which dissipates heat through evaporation. Early humans probably had few sweat glands, like chimpanzees, and those were mainly located on the palms of their hands and the soles of their feet. Occasionally, however, individuals were born with more glands than usual, and more patches of hairless skin which allows the sweat to exude. The more they could sweat, the longer they could forage before the heat forced them back into the shade. The more they could forage, the better their chances of having healthy offspring and of passing on their sweat glands to future generations.
A million years of natural selection later, each human has about two million sweat glands spread across his or her body. Human skin, being less hairy than chimpanzee skin, “dries much quicker,” says Adrienne Zihiman, an anthropologist at the University of California at Santa Cruz. “Just think how after a bath it takes much longer for wet hair to dry.”
Hairless skin, however, is particularly vulnerable to damage from sunlight. Scientists long assumed that humans evolved melanin, the main determinant of skin color, to absorb or disperse ultraviolet light. But what is it about ultraviolet light that melanin protects against? Some researchers pointed to the threat of skin cancer. But cancer usually develops late in life, after a person has already reproduced.
C. Jablonski found a 1978 study that examined the effects of ultraviolet light on folate, a member of the vitamin B complex. An hour of intense sunlight, the study showed, is enough to cut folate levels in half if your skin is light. Jablonski made the next, crucial connection only a few weeks later. At a seminar on embryonic development, she heard that low folate levels are correlated with neural-tube defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly, in which infants are born without a full brain or spinal cord. Jablonski later came across three documented cases in which children’ s neural-tube defects were linked to their mothers’ visits to tanning studios during early pregnancy. Moreover, she found that folate is crucial to sperm development—so much so that a folate inhibitor was developed as a male contraceptive. (“It never got anywhere,” Jablonski says. “It was so effective that it knocked out all folate in the body.” ) She now had some intriguing evidence that folate might be the driving force behind the evolution of darker skin. But why do
some people have light skin?
As far back as the 1960s, the biochemist W. Farnsworth Loomis had suggested that skin color is determined by the body’s need for vitamin D. This vitamin helps the body absorb calcium and deposit it in bones, an essential function, particularly in fast-growing embryos. Unlike folate, vitamin D depends on ultraviolet light for its production in the body. Loomis believed that people who live in the north, where daylight is weakest, evolved fair skin to help absorb more ultraviolet light, and that people in the tropic; evolved dark skin to block the light, keeping the body from overdosing on vitamin D, which can be toxic at high concentrations. Loomis’s insight about fair skin complemented Jablonski’s insight about folate and dark skin perfectly. The next step was to find some hard data correlating skin color with light levels.
Until the 1980s, researchers could only estimate how much ultraviolet radiation reaches the Earth’s surface. But in 1978, NASA launched the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer. Jablonski took the spectrometer’s global ultraviolet measurements and compared them with published data on skin color in indigenous populations from more than 50 countries. There was an unmistakable correlation: The weaker the ultraviolet light, the fairer the skin. Jablonski went on to show that people living above 50 degrees latitude have the highest risk of vitamin D deficiency. “This was one of the last barriers in the history of human settlement,” Jablonski says. “Only after humans learned fishing, and therefore had access to food rich in vitamin D, could they settle these regions.’
D. Humans have pent most of their history moving around. To do that, they’ve had to adapt their tools, clothes, housing, and eating habits to each new climate and landscape. But Jablonski’s work indicates that our adaptations go much further. People in the tropics have developed dark skin to block out the sun and protect their body’s folate reserves. People far from the equator have developed fair skin to drink in the sun and produce adequate amounts of vitamin D during the long winter months.
Jablonski hopes that her research will alert people to the importance of vitamin D and folate in their diet. It’s already known, for example, that dark-skinned people
who move to cloudy climes can develop conditions such as rickets from vitamin D deficiencies. More important, Jablonski hopes her work will begin to change the way people think about skin color. “We can take a topic that has caused so much disagreement, so r much suffering; and so much misunderstanding,” she says, “and completely disarm it.”
Questions 1—5
The reading passage has four sections (A—D). In boxes 1—5 on your answer sheet write the appropriate letter A, B, C or D to show in which section you can find a discussion of the following points. You may use any letter more than once.
1. The effect of ultraviolet light on skin color.
2. The role of folate levels in ensuring healthy births.
3. Early theories of skin color were flawed.
4. Fish and the spread of human settlement.
5. How hairless skin is a mechanism of the body’s cooling system.
Answer: 1-C, 2-C, 3-A, 4-C, 5-B

2. The Exquisite Balance
In a 1987 lecture entitled “The Burden of Skepticism,” astronomer Carl Sagan succinctly summarized the delicate compromise between tradition and change: “It seems to me that what is called for is an exquisite balance between two conflicting needs: the most skeptical scrutiny of all hypotheses that are served up to us and at the same time a great openness to new ideas... If you are only skeptical, then no new ideas make it through to you...On the other hand, if you are open to the point of gullibility and have not an ounce of skeptical sense in you, then you cannot distinguish the useful ideas from the worthless ones.”
Why, we might inquire, do some people prefer orthodoxy while others favor heresy? Is there a personality trait for preferring tradition and another for change? This is an important question because the answer helps to explain why in the history of science some scientists chose to support radical new ideas while others opposed them. In 1990 David W Swift published SETI Pioneers: Scientists Talk about Their Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence, in which he identified an overabundance of first-born children, including Sagan.
It is significant that Sagan was an enthusiastic supporter of the idea that there are other intelligent beings in the universe besides man. However, at the same time he consistently opposed the idea of UFOs (unidentified flying objects), which many reputable scientists believed in. But is the number of firstborns among people who accept new ideas enthusiastically a statistically significant overabundance? Swift, a sociologist at the University of Hawaii, did not compute this, but University of California at Berkeley psychologist Frank J. Subway and the author did. Eight is the expected number of firstborns based on the number of siblings the SETT pioneers had, but 12 is the observed number. This difference is statistically significant at the 95 percent level of confidence.
So what? In Sulloway’s book Born to Rebel, he presents a summary of 196 controlled birth-order findings classified according to the Five-Factor Model of Personality:
Conscientiousness. Firstborns are more responsible, achievement-oriented, organized, and planful.
Agreeableness Laterborns are more easygoing, cooperative, and popular.
Openness to Experience. Firstborns are more conforming, traditional, and closely identified with parents.
Extroversion. Firstborns are more extroverted, assertive, and likely to exhibit leadership.
Neuroticism. Firstborns are more jealous, anxious, neurotic, fearful, and likely to group together under stress.
To evaluate Sagan’s personality, Sulloway requested a number of his friends to rate him on a standardized personality inventory of 40 descriptive adjectives using a nine-step scale between them, based on the Five-Factor model. For example, the author judged whether Carl Sagan was someone who was either hardworking or lackadaisical, tough-minded or tender-minded, rebellious or conforming, etc. The following results are in percentile ranking relative to Subway’s database of more than 7,276 subjects.
Most consistent with his firstborn status was Sagan’s exceptionally high ranking—88th percentile—on conscientiousness (ambitiousness, dutifulness) and his strikingly low ranking of the 13th percentile on agreeableness (tender-mindedness, modesty). This is the opposite of what we would expect from laterborns. But his openness to experience (preference for novelty) was nearly off the scale at the 97th percentile. Why? First, birth order is not the only influence on openness and can be affected by cultural influences surrounding a person as he or she grows up—Sagan was raised in a socially liberal Jewish family; and he was mentored by such scientific revolutionaries as Joshua Lederberg and H. J. Muller. Second, openness also includes an “intellectual” component, and firstborns tend to excel at intellectual pursuits, reflected by their higher I.Q. scores and a tendency to win more Nobel Prizes in science. Here is the key to understanding the exquisite balance between tradition and change: Sagan’s high degree of openness led him to be a SETI pioneer, but his high degree of intellectual conscientiousness made him skeptical of UFOs. Considering the example of Sagan, we can glean a valuable lesson on how science operates effectively in discriminating sense from nonsense, and it is science that helps us understand how and why this should be so.
Questions 1—8
Using the information in the passage, identify each characteristic described below. In boxes 1—8 on your answer sheet, write:
FB if the statement refers to firstborns
LB if the statement refers to laterborns
CS if the statement refers to Carl Sagan
CI if the statement refers to cultural influences
FS if the statement refers to Frank J Sulloway
Note: Each indicator may be used more than once.
Example Answer
His lecture dealt with tradition and change. CS
1. Swift discovered many of them among the SETI pioneers.
2. They are more ambitious than their siblings.
3. They are more sociable than their siblings.
4. He used the Five-Factor Model of Personality.
5. His personality was analyzed.
6. Birth order is not the only influence on openness.
7. They are less conscientious and agreeable.
8. His eagerness to experience new things was extremely high.

Answer: 1-FB, 2-FB, 3-LB, 4-FS, 5-CS, 6-CI, 7-LB, 8-CS

3. Controversy over Identity Chip
A Florida technology company, Applied Digital Solutions (ADS), is poised to ask the US government for permission to market a computer identity chip which can be embedded beneath a person’s skin. This new implant technology could be good news for airports, nuclea power plants and other high-security facilities, as it could replace ID cards, which ar easy to counterfeit, and avoid the problem of negligence on the part of security guards. In addition, the computer chip, which is no bigger than a grain of rice, is extremely difficult remove or fake.
Other uses of this techchnology include satellite tracking of an individual’s every move to the storage of sensitive data such as medical records. As a result, the technology is attracting interest worldwide among people involved in tasks such as foiling kidnapping and providing paramedical services. Already, eight companies based in Latin America, wh re kidnappings are endemic, have asked ADS to develop programs for them. Also, a r an who suffers from serious allergies is keen to be the first person to have one of the chips implanted in him. Jeff Jacobs of Florida said, “In case I had an allergy attack, nedical personnel would be able to tell from the chip whom to contact, what medications I’m on, what I’m allergic to, what kind of operations I’ve had and where there might be problems.”
More than a decade ago, ADS bought a competing firm which had been making chips for implanting into animals. The chips helped owners find lost pets and also stored vaccination record . Chips for humans are not much different. The makers of the chip foresee it being used to help emergency workers diagnose a lost Alzheimer’s disease patient or to acces an unconscious patient’s medical history.
The chip has no power supply; rather, it contains a millimeter-long magnetic coil that is activated when a scanning device is run across the skin above it. A tiny transmitter on the chip sends out the data. Without a scanner, the chip cannot be read. ADS plans to give scanners free to hospitals and ambulance companies, in the hope that they will become standard equipment.
However, several groups advocating personal privacy have expressed fears that the chips may be used to infringe on personal freedoms. A spokesman for the Electronic Frontier Foundation, one of such organizations, said, “The problem is that you always have to think about what the technology will be used for tomorrow. It’s what we call function creep. At first a device is used for applications we all agree are good. But then it is slowly used for more than was originally intended. For instance, people who fall foul of the law and order authorities may be compelled to have the chips implanted in them in rder to monitor their movements. This brings the individual helplessly into the power of the state.”
ADS responds to this criticism by asserting that it will never provide the technology to anyone who intends to coerce people to have the chips implanted in them.

Questions 1-6
The paragraph below is a summary of the reading passage. Choose ONE or TWO words from the passage to complete spaces 1-6. Write the words in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
Example Answer
The new implant technology could replace. ID cards
ADS has developed a technique aimed at strengthening security systems using a(1)------which would be embedded in the body. Two of the areas where the system could be very helpful are in efforts to combat (2)------and provide (3) ------. The technology was developed from a system used to trace (4)------. The data cannot be read without a (5)------, but ADS intends to supply such equipment free to certain users. A problem is that groups which champion personal privacy are alarmed about what they call (6)------.
Answer:1-computer chip, 2-kidnappings, 3-paramedical services,4-lost pets, 5-scanner, 6-function creep

4. Good Nutrition —The Choice is yours
Making wise food choices early in life will help prevent health problems that can effect you later. It is reported that 8 of the 10 leading causes of death in America are directly related to what we eat and drink. Your eating habits, along with a smart exercise program, are crucial elements on the path to a healthier body and self.
Fighting the Freshman 15
University students often experience substantial weight gain in their first year. Experts recommend limiting your fat intake to 30% of the total calories you consume per day. For a moderately active woman, you should consume approximately 2000 calories and 65 grams of fat each day. For a moderately active man, you should consume approximately 2500 calories and 80 grams of fat. If you want to lose weight, the equation is simple, eat less and exercise more. If you reduce your caloric intake by 500 calories per day, you will lose 1 pound per week. Alternatively, if you consume the same amount of calories, but increase your activity level to burn an additional 500 calories per day, you will also lose 1 pound per week.
The easiest way to decrease the number of calories your body stores as fat is to not consume those calories in the first place; especially since it is much more difficult to burn calories once they are consumed. For weight loss it is recommended that you do not decrease your calorie and fat intake to any less than 1200 calories and 40 grams of fat. Starvation diets or losing weight too fast can be dangerous.