Why Study Argument?
You are going to have to use logical reasoning in real life.
By learning to write or speak to the appropriate authorities, you may be able to change a school policy or a work policy that you deem unfair.
It can help you cope with the bewildering confusion of voices in the world around you.
It can help you distinguish between a valid and an invalid argument.
It can give you strategies to work through a personal dilemma.
As your text cites, “We can, in fact, defend the study of argumentation for the same reasons that we defend universal education despite its high cost and sometimes controversial results. In a democracy, widespread literacy ultimately benefits all members of a society. . .because only an informed citizenry can make responsible choices” (Rottenburg and Winchell 12).
They continue, “Distinguished rhetorician Wayne C. Booth explains that ‘democracy depends on a citizenry that can reason for themselves, on men who know whether a case has been proved, or at least made probable’” (12).
Furthermore, “In free societies, arguments and debate remain the preeminent means of arriving at consensus” (12).
Argument is the use of mainly logical appeals.
Persuasion includes ethical and emotional appeals as well.
In this class, we will refer to argument as forms of discourse that attempt to persuade readers or listeners to accept a claim.
Argument, in most universities, is taught through the Toulmin method, which includes claim, support, and warrant.
The claim answers the question, “What are you trying to prove?”
Claims of Fact assert that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist and are based on facts or data that the audience will accept as objectively verifiable.
1. Fast foods are contributing significantly to today’s epidemic of childhood obesity.
2. Global warming will affect the coastlines of all continents.
Common ground: these policies can be supported by data.
Claims of Value attempt to prove that some things are more or less desirable than others.
1. Abortion is wrong under any circumstances.
2. The right to privacy is more important than the need to increase security at airports.
3. Mel Gibson’s “Apocalypto” is marred by its excessive violence.
Claims of Policy assert that specific policies should be instituted as solutions to problems. The expression should, must, or ought to usually appears in the statement.
1. The electoral college should be replaced by popular vote as the means of electing a president.
2. Attempts at making air travel more secure must not put in jeopardy the passengers’ right to privacy.
3. Backscatter x-raying ought to be implemented at every American airport as soon as possible as a means of detecting concealed weapons.
Take a moment and label each of these claims as a claim of fact, value, or policy.
A. Solar power could supply 20 percent of the energy needs now satisfied by fossil and nuclear power.
B. Violence on television produces violent behavior in children who watch more than four hours a day.
C. MCHS should implement a FLEX Block schedule to accommodate longer tests and labs.
D. Some forms of cancer are caused by viruses.
E. Dogs are smarter than cats.
F. The money that our government spends on the space program would be better spent solving domestic problems like unemployment and homelessness.
G. Parents should monitor their children’s cell phone use.
H. Movie sequels are generally inferior to their originals.
I. Tom Hanks is a more versatile actor than Tom Cruise.
J. Recycling is beneficial to any community.
K. Average yearly temperatures in North America are already being affected by global warming.
L. Human activity is the primary cause of global warming.
The support (sometimes called DATA) for an argument consists of facts, statistics, and testimony from experts. Writers may also use appeals to values or attitudes in order to motivate an audience to accept a belief or adopt a course of action.
In argument, the warrant is an assumption, a belief, or a principle that is taken for granted. It may be stated or unstated; most often writers state the warrant if they believe it will help the audience accept the claim.
Example 1
Claim: Backscatter screening should be implemented in America’s airports.
Support: evidence that backscatter screening will make planes safer
Warrant: Any screening technique that will make planes safer should be implemented.
Example 2:
Claim: Backscatter screening should be implemented in America’s airports.
Support: A security screener viewing your embarrassing x-ray is better than dying.
Warrant: Safety is worth a small loss of privacy.
Example 3:
Claim: Advertising of cigarettes should be legally banned.
Support: Cigarettes are harmful to our health.
Warrant: Advertising of products harmful to our health should be legally banned.
*It is virtually impossible to convince your audience of your claim if the audience does not agree with the principle expressed in your warrant.
Many writers create ethos—the credibility of the writer—in order to engage the respect of the audience.
The writer must present him/herself as knowledgeable, well-informed, morally upright, and dependable.
Today, a writer must consider the opposing viewpoint in order to be respected (That’s why we always qualified our arguments in AP).
Some unethical acts in argument:
Misusing facts
Suppressing evidence
Distorting statistics
Violating the rules of logic
Watch for these evasive and misleading tactics in the political ads who see from now until November.
Scan handout on the 6-part oration.