Chapter 6
Work-Related Violence, Bullying,
and Sexual Harassment
Kaisa Kauppinen and Tarita Tuomola
Introduction
Work plays a significant part in the lives of most Europeans. In the EU, women’s
participation in the workforce has steadily increased. Today,women make up 44 percent
of the workforce in the enlarged EU. Many sectors are still largely dominated
by one sex. Women account for the majority of workers in health (79%), education
(72%), other service industries (61%), the wholesale and retail trade (55%), and
hotels and restaurants (48%). These sectors employ more than half of all women in
employment throughout the EU. Any changes in the working conditions in these
sectors have a considerable impact on the quality of work and employment for
women.
Men constitute the majority (89%) of those employed in the construction sector,
public utilities (80%), and transport and communication (74%). Only 23 percent of
the workforce is employed in gender-integrated occupations (i.e., where between 40
and 60 percent of the workers are women). Even in the same jobs within the same
organizations, women and men often carry out different tasks.
The labor market is also strongly vertically segregated, with more men in managerial
and senior positions. Women are far more likely to work part-time than men,
and they are under-represented in permanent job contracts.
These figures are from the Fourth European Working Conditions Survey that
was carried out in late 2005. The survey monitors developments in quality of work
and employment in the EU member states and at the EU level. Its key areas of
focus include: employment security, health and well-being, competence and skills
development, and work-life balance (
The experience of women in the labor market has brought a new focus on psychosocial
issues into the occupational health and safety debate. With the majority
of employed women working in services and related sectors, their rates of actual
accidents are lower than that of men. Men—particularly young men—report higher
exposures to traditional physical risks than women. Around 15 percent ofmen report
exposure to vibration, and 14 percent to noise (all or almost all the time), compared
to between 5 and 7 percent, respectively, of women. Ergonomic risks tend to bemore
gender-neutral. Women, on the other hand, report higher incidences of other types of
A. Linos, W. Kirch (eds), Promoting Health for Working Women. 161
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162 K. Kauppinen, T. Tuomola
problems: allergies, infectious illnesses, hepatitis, and dermatological conditions, as
well as mental health problems (Gender Issues in Safety and Health at Work 2003).
In 2000, 10.2 percent of female workers claimed to have been subjected to intimidation,
compared to 7.3 percent of men, while 3.1 percent said they had experienced
gender discrimination, compared to just 0.8 percent of men (Social Agenda 2006).
Young people appear to be more susceptible than older people if exposed to
health risks at work. They are also more subject to harassment and bullying at
work. This may be due to job segregation, with younger people having more
direct contact with members of the public—possibly coupled with less experience,
as well as lack of authority in the job, for example, to solve a client’s problem
(
Bullying or harassment, violence or the threat of violence, and various forms
of discrimination, all contribute to psychological ill-health and stress. According to
the FourthWorking Conditions Survey, around 5 percent of workers reported having
experienced some form of violence, bullying, or harassment in the workplace in the
previous 12-month period.
This chapter focuses on workplace violence in its various forms—physical violence,
verbal violence, bullying, and sexual harassment. It introduces the basic concepts
and definitions, the various forms and tactics of negative behavior at work, the
prevalence of the phenomena in the EU context, the risky factors and sectors, and
the various consequences of workplace violence on health and safety at work. The
main focus is on how to prevent workplace violence at an early stage.
Work-Related Violence
Definition—What is Workplace Violence
Workplace violence is defined as violence or the threat of violence against workers
that endangers their health, safety, or well-being at work. It can occur at or outside
the workplace, and can range from threats and verbal abuse to physical assaults and
even homicide. However it manifests itself, workplace violence is a growing concern
for employers and employees in workplaces across the EU (Fact Sheet 2002).
The European Commission defines violence arising out of work as “incidents
where persons are abused, threatened or assaulted in circumstances related to their
work, involving an explicit or implicit challenge to their safety, wellbeing or health.”
This definition covers both verbal and physical abuse, such as physical attacks,
robbery, threats, shouting, and verbal abuse. There may also be a racial or sexual
dimension to the violence. In real situations, physical and psychological violence
often occurs simultaneously or consecutively (Di Martino, Hoel & Cooper 2003).
The concept of external workplace violence covers insults, threats, or physical
or psychological aggressions exerted by people from outside the organization—
including customers and clients—against a person at work. Aggressive or violent
acts can take various forms, such as:
6 Work-Related Violence, Bullying, and Sexual Harassment 163
Uncivil behavior—a lack of respect for others
Physical or verbal aggression—intention to injure
Assault—intention to harm other person
Who is Vulnerable? Who is Affected?
Results from the Third European Survey on Working Conditions show that 4 percent
of the working population report that they have been victims of physical violence
outside the workplace, with women reporting higher levels. Many more have
suffered from threats and insults or other forms of external workplace violence
(
The Fourth European Survey on Working Conditions indicated a slight increase
in the level of physical violence reported—4 percent between 1995 and 2005
(for the EU15), compared to 6 percent in 2005. Exposure to violence and
threats of violence is greater in Northern Europe, with higher than average levels
reported in the Netherlands (10%), France and the UK (9%), and Ireland
(
In the United States, some two million American workers are victims of workplace
violence each year ( Homicide is the leading cause of injury
death for women in the workplace in the United States. Workplace homicides are
primarily robbery-related, and often occur in grocery or convenience stores, eating
and drinking establishments, and gasoline service stations. Over 25 percent
of female victims of workplace homicide are assaulted by people they know (coworkers,
customers, spouses, or friends). Domestic violence incidents that spill into
the workplace account for 16 percent of female victims in jobsite-related homicides
(Fact Sheet: Women’s Safety and Health Issues at Work NIOSH).
Workplace violence can strike anywhere, and no one is immune, however some
workers are at increased risk. Contact with customers or clients increases the risk
of facing violence. Among them are workers who exchange money with the public;
deliver passengers, goods, or services; or who work alone or in small groups during
late night or early morning hours.
The following occupations are examples of those especially at risk of violence
(
• nurses and other healthcare workers
• taxi and bus drivers
• employees performing repairs in the customer homes
• service station staff
• cashiers
• security guards, police officers, parking inspectors, and prison guards
• social workers and social housing managers
Risky environments are largely concentrated in the service sector—in particular,
organizations in the health, transport, retail, catering, financial, and education sectors.
The health care sector is identified in EU countries as one of the most affected.
164 K. Kauppinen, T. Tuomola
According to the Fourth European Working Conditions Survey, workers in
the education and health sectors are six times more likely to encounter the
threat of physical violence than their counterparts in the manufacturing sector
( Violence in the health care sector is
a major problem worldwide, affecting over 50 percent of health care workers.
Ambulance and emergency staff nurses, for instance, are at great risk of violence
(ILO 2002).
Women’s increased risk of violence from members of the public is closely related
to job segregation.Women are often concentrated in high-risk jobs and occupations
such as nursing, social work, and teaching. The problem of increasing physical violence
concerns mostly occupations where difficult customers and clients have to be
dealt with.
People who suffer violence or harassment in the workplace tend to report
higher levels of work-related illness than those who do not—nearly four times
the level of symptoms of psychological disturbances such as sleeping problems,
anxiety and irritability, and physical ailments such as stomachaches
(
How to Prevent Violence at Work?
Prevention of harm takes place at two levels. On the first level, the aim is to prevent
acts of violence from occurring, or at least to reduce them. On the second level, if the
act of violence has occurred, support is required for the person who has experienced
the incident. The support should try to minimize the harmful effects of the incident
and prevent any guilty feelings that may appear after an act of aggression. It is
important to offer stress debriefing sessions and post-traumatic counseling services
to help workers recover from a violent event (
The best protection employers can offer is to establish a zero-tolerance policy
toward workplace violence against or by their employees. The employer should
establish a workplace prevention program, or incorporate the information into an
existing accident prevention program, employee handbook, or manual. It is critical
that all employees know the policy and understand it. In addition, employers can
provide additional protections, such as the following:
• Provide safety education for employees so that they know what conduct is not
acceptable, what to do if they witness or are subjected to workplace violence,
and how to protect themselves
• Secure the workplace. Where appropriate in the workplace, install video surveillance,
extra lightning, and alarm systems, and minimize access by outsiders
through identification badges, electronic keys, and guards
• Provide drop safes to limit the amount of cash on hand. Keep a minimal amount
of money in registers during evenings and late-night hours
• Equip field staff with mobile phones, hand-held alarms, and panic buttons or
noise devices
6 Work-Related Violence, Bullying, and Sexual Harassment 165
• Instruct employees not to enter any location where they feel unsafe. Provide an
escort service or police assistance in potentially dangerous situations or at night
• Discuss the circumstances of any incident with staff members. Encourage
employees to share information about ways to avoid similar situations in the
future
• Investigate all violent incidents and threats, monitor trends in violent incidents
by type or circumstance, and institute corrective actions (
Nothing can fully guarantee that an employee will not become a victim of workplace
violence. These steps can help reduce the difficulties:
• Learn how to recognize, avoid, or diffuse potentially violent situations by attending
personal safety training courses
• Alert supervisors to any concerns about safety or security and report all incidents
in writing immediately
• Avoid traveling alone into unfamiliar locations or situations whenever
possible
• Carry minimal money and required identification during home visits
Legislation
The European Commission has introduced measures to ensure the safety and health
of workers. The 1989 Council Directive (89/391) contains the basic provisions
for health and safety at work and makes employers responsible for ensuring that
employees do not suffer any harm through work—including violence at work.
All member states have implemented this Directive through national legislation,
and some countries have developed special guidance on preventing violence at work.
Following the approach in the Directive, employers in consultation with employees
and their representatives should:
• Aim to prevent violence at work
• Assess the risks of violence at work
• Take adequate action to prevent any harm (
The steps to successful prevention of work-related violence are well documented.
Further research and development of good practice in specific sectors, occupations,
and types of violence, however, is strongly recommended with a well-grounded
gender perspective. Gender mainstreaming is needed when implementing the Safety
and Health at Work legislation within the national contexts—workplace violence in
its various manifestations is not a gender-neutral issue.
166 K. Kauppinen, T. Tuomola
Bullying atWork
Definition and Concepts: What is Workplace Bullying?
According to the European Agency for Safety and Health atWork, bullying at work
constitutes a significant problem in the European workforce. The costs are considerable
for both the worker and the organization. Bullying is regarded as unethical,
oppressive behavior, and therefore unacceptable in the work environment (Fact
Sheets 2002).
There is no single, agreed-upon definition of bullying and several terms have
been used interchangeably with it (Vartia 2003). One of them is mobbing, which is
widely used in German-speaking countries. Other terms close in meaning to workplace
bullying include nonsexual harassment, victimization, psychological terror,
scapegoating, and petty tyranny. Psychological or moral harassment are also terms
used to describe intimidating behavior between colleagues in the workplace. In the
United States, concepts like abusive behavior or negative behavior, intimidation,
and workplace trauma have been used to describe hostile behaviors relevant to
workplace bullying.
An example of a definition is:
“Workplace bullying is repeated, unreasonable behaviour directed towards an employee,
or a group of employees, that creates a risk to health and safety. Bullying often involves
a misuse of power, where the targets can experience difficulties in defending themselves”
(
The Swedish researcher, Heinz Leymann, is one of the well-known researchers
in this field—his work has inspired further research. He has defined psychological
terror or mobbing in the following way (1990; 1996):
“Psychological terror or mobbing in working life involves hostile and unethical communication,
which is directed in a systematic way by one or a few individuals mainly towards
one individual who, due to mobbing is pushed into a helpless and defenseless position,
being held there by means of continuing mobbing activities. These actions occur on a very
frequent basis (statistical definition; at least once a week) and over a long period of time
(statistical definition; at least six months)”.
Different forms of bullying can be identified according to Vartia (1993):slander,
gossip, and rumors; social isolation and keeping people uninformed; giving people
too few or overly simple work tasks; continuous criticism of people’s work and
its results; threats or acts of physical violence; and insinuations about a person’s
mental state. These examples indicate that bullying can involve both verbal and
physical attacks, as well as more subtle acts like devaluation of colleague’s work or
social isolation. Bullying often involves a misuse of power, where the targets can
experience difficulties in defending themselves.
All definitions of workplace bullying have the following characteristics in common:
• Bullying involves negative or hostile behaviors occurring regularly, repeatedly,
and over time
6 Work-Related Violence, Bullying, and Sexual Harassment 167
• The victim has difficulty defending her/himself
• Although bullying is usually regarded as a conflict between co-workers or supervisors
and subordinates, people outside the workplace (e.g., customers, clients,
and patients) can also be identified as bullies (Vartia 2003).
Who is Vulnerable? Who is Affected?
Anyone in any organization can be the victim of bullying. Results from The
Third European Survey on Working Conditions show that 9 percent of workers
in Europe—or about 12 million people—reported being subjected to bullying
over a 12-month period in 2000. Women are more likely to experience
intimidation and bullying at work than men (10%, as opposed to 7% of men)
(
There is a wide variation in the reported prevalence of bullying or harassment in
different EU member states—ranging from 15 percent of workers being subjected
to intimidation in Finland and 12 percent in the Netherlands, to 4 percent in Portugal
and 2 percent in Italy. It should be noted that country-to-country differences
may reflect awareness of the issue and willingness to report, as well as actual variations
in the prevalence ( According to
other surveys, approximately 5 to 10 percent of the population perceive themselves
as being bullied at any one time, while a higher number are exposed to behavior that
may be described as bullying without necessarily feeling victimized (Di Martino
et al. 2003).
There are also gender differences in bullying. Women are more likely to be
bullied by women than by men, while men are more likely to be bullied by other
men. Although both genders can be bullies as well as targets of bullying, the forms
of negative behavior between genders vary (The Workplace Bullying and Trauma
Institute 2005;
Job segregation is one of the reasons for women being more exposed to bullying.
Surveys suggest that there is a high incidence of bullying in the female-dominated
sectors of public administration, education, healthcare, and social work as well as
the financial services sectors. Bullying has also been found to be typical of large,
poorly run hierarchical organizations with high workplace pressure (Gender Issues
in Safety and Health at Work 2003).
The Forth European Survey on Working Conditions shows that a greater level
of bullying or harassment is reported in large establishments (over 250 workers)
and in the education, health, and hostels and restaurants sectors. Those exposed
to bullying or harassment at work are also significantly more likely than average
to report absence due to work-related illness (23% compared to 7%). They
also tend to be absent from work for longer periods (
ewco/surveys).