1. All living things are made up of four classes of ______: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
  2. Within cells, small organic molecules are joined together to form larger molecules
  3. Macromolecules are large molecules composed of thousands of covalently connected atoms
  4. Molecular structure and function are inseparable
  5. Concept 5.1: Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
  1. A ______: is a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks
  2. These small building-block molecules are called ______:
  3. Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers:
  4. Carbohydrates
  1. ______
  2. Nucleic acids
  1. When two monomers bond together through the

______molecule a condensation

reaction or more specifically a ______reaction

  1. Enzymes are macromolecules that speed up the dehydration process
  1. Polymers are disassembled to monomers by ______, a

reaction that is essentially the ______of the dehydration reaction

  1. Each cell has thousands of different kinds of macromolecules
  2. Macromolecules vary among cells of the

______organism, vary more within a species, and vary even more between species

  1. An immense variety of polymers can be built from a small set of monomers
  2. These monomers can be connected in many combinations, just

as______in the alphabet are used to create words.

Lecture Questions 5.1 The Molecules of Life

  1. List the four major classes of macromolecules.
  1. Concept 5.2: Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material
  2. Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars
  3. The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars
  4. Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides, polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
  1. ______have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of

______

  1. Glucose (C6H12O6) is the most common monosaccharide
  2. Monosaccharides are classified by
  3. The location of the carbonyl group (as

______or______)

  1. The number of carbons in the carbon skeleton
  2. Though often drawn as linear skeletons, in aqueous solutions many sugars form

______

  1. Monosaccharides serve as a major fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules
  2. A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides
  3. This covalent bond is called a glycosidic linkage
  4. Polysaccharides, are polymers of hundreds and thousands of

______, have storage and structural roles

  1. The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages
  1. ______, a storage polysaccharide of plants, consists entirely of glucose monomers
  2. Plants store surplus starch as granules within chloroplasts and other plastids. Animals that feed on those plants have digestive enzymes that

______the starch to glucose.

  1. ______is a storage polysaccharide in animals
  2. Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells
  1. The polysaccharide ______is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells
  2. Like starch, cellulose is a polymer of glucose, but the glycosidic linkages differ
  3. The difference is based on two ring forms for glucose: alpha () and beta ()
  4. Polymers with  glucose are helical
  5. Polymers with  glucose are straight
  6. Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing  linkages can’t hydrolyze  linkages in cellulose
  7. Cellulose in human food passes through the digestive

tract as ______

  1. Some microbes use enzymes to digest cellulose
  2. Many herbivores, from cows to termites, have symbiotic relationships with these cellulose-digesting

______.

  1. ______, another structural polysaccharide, is found in the exoskeleton of arthropods
  2. Chitin also provides structural support for the

______of many fungi

Lecture Questions 5.2 Carbohydrates Serve as Fuel and Building Material

  1. Distinguish between the glycosidic linkages found in starch and cellulose. Explain why the difference is biologically important.
  1. Concept 5.3: Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules
  2. Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that do not form polymers
  3. The unifying feature of ______is having little or no affinity for water
  4. Lipids are ______because they consist mostly of hydrocarbons, which form nonpolar covalent bonds
  5. The most biologically important lipids are fats, phospholipids, and steroids
  1. ______are constructed from two types of smaller molecules:

______and______

  1. Glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol with a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon
  2. A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton
  3. Fats separate from water because water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other and exclude the fats
  4. In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an

ester linkage, creating a ______, or triglyceride

  1. Fatty acids vary in length (number of carbons) and in the number and locations of double bonds
  1. ______have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds
  1. ______have one or more double bonds
  2. Fats made from saturated fatty acids are called saturated fats, and are solid at room temperature
  3. Most animal fats are saturated
  4. Fats made from unsaturated fatty acids are called unsaturated fats or oils, and are liquid at room temperature
  5. Plant fats and fish fats are usually unsaturated
  6. A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to cardiovascular disease through plaque deposits
  7. Hydrogenation is the process of converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats by adding hydrogen
  8. Hydrogenating vegetable oils also creates unsaturated fats with trans double bonds
  9. These trans fats may contribute more than saturated fats to cardiovascular disease
  10. The major function of fats is energy storage
  11. Humans and other mammals store their fat in adipose cells
  12. Adipose tissue also cushions vital organs and insulates the body
  1. In a ______, two fatty acids and a phosphate group are attached to glycerol
  2. The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head
  3. When phospholipids are added to water, they self-assemble into a bilayer, with the hydrophobic tails pointing toward the interior
  4. The structure of phospholipids results in a

______arrangement found in cell membranes

  1. Phospholipids are the major component of all cell membranes
  1. Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
  1. ______, an important steroid, is a component in animal cell membranes
  2. Although cholesterol is essential in animals, high levels in the blood may contribute to cardiovascular disease

Lecture Questions 5.3 Lipids are a Diverse Group of Hydrophobic Molecules

  1. Describe the building-block molecules, structure, and biological importance of fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
  1. Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fats
  1. Concept 5.4: Proteins have many structures, resulting in a wide range of functions
  2. Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most cells
  3. Protein functions include structural support, storage, transport, cellular communications, movement, and defense against foreign substances
  1. ______are a type of protein that acts as a ______to speed up chemical reactions
  2. Enzymes can perform their functions repeatedly, functioning as workhorses that carry out the processes of life
  1. ______are organic molecules with carboxyl and amino groups
  2. Amino acids differ in their properties due to differing side chains, called R groups
  1. Amino acids are linked by ______
  2. Polypeptides are polymers built from the same set of 20 amino acids
  3. A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids
  4. Polypeptides range in length from a few to more than a thousand monomers
  5. Each polypeptide has a unique linear sequence of amino acids
  6. A protein consists of one or more polypeptides
  1. A functional protein consists of one or more polypeptides twisted, folded, and coiled into a unique shape
  2. The sequence of amino acids determines a protein’s three-dimensional structure
  3. A protein’s structure determines its function
  4. Four Levels of Protein Structure
  1. The ______of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids
  2. Secondary structure, found in most proteins, consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain
  3. Tertiary structure is determined by interactions among various side chains (R groups)
  4. Quaternary structure results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains
  1. Primary structure, the sequence of amino acids in a protein, is like the order of letters in a long word
  2. Primary structure is determined by inherited genetic information
  1. Consists of ______and disulfide bonds.
  1. Even a ______in the primary structure can affect a protein’s ability to function
  1. The coils and folds of ______result from hydrogen bonds between repeating constituents of the polypeptide backbone
  2. Typical secondary structures are a coil called an

______and a folded structure called

a______

  1. ______is determined by interactions between R groups, rather than interactions between backbone constituents
  2. These interactions between R groups include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and van der Waals interactions
  3. Strong covalent bonds called ______may reinforce the protein’s structure
  1. ______results when two or more polypeptide chains form one macromolecule
  2. Collagen is a fibrous protein consisting of three polypeptides coiled like a rope
  3. Hemoglobin is a globular protein consisting of four polypeptides: two alpha and two beta chains
  4. A slight change in primary structure can affect a protein’s structure and ability to function.
  5. Sickle-cell disease, an inherited blood disorder, results from a single amino acid substitution in the protein hemoglobin
  6. What Determines Protein Structure?
  7. In addition to primary structure, physical and chemical conditions can affect structure
  8. Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other environmental factors can cause a protein to unravel
  9. This loss of a protein’s native structure is called

______

  1. A denatured protein is biologically inactive

Lecture Questions 5.4

Proteins have Many Structures, Resulting in a Wide Range of Functions

  1. Explain how a peptide bond forms between two amino acids.
  1. List and describe the four major components of an amino acid. Explain how amino acids may be grouped according to the physical and chemical properties of the R group.
  1. List four conditions under which proteins may be denatured.
  1. Concept 5.5: Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information
  2. The amino acid sequence of a polypeptide is programmed by a unit of inheritance called a gene
  3. Genes are made of DNA, a ______
  4. The Roles of Nucleic Acids
  5. There are two types of nucleic acids:
  1. ______
  1. ______
  1. DNA provides directions for its own replication
  2. DNA directs synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) and, through mRNA, controls protein synthesis
  3. Protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes
  1. In RNA, the sugar is ______; in DNA, the sugar is

______

  1. The nitrogenous base pairs in RNA are ______; in

DNA they are ______

  1. Nucleotide = nucleoside + phosphate group
  1. Nucleic acids are polymers called ______
  2. Each polynucleotide is made of monomers called

______

  1. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous ______, a

pentose______, and a ______group

  1. The portion of a nucleotide without the phosphate group is called a nucleoside
  1. Nucleoside = nitrogenous base + sugar
  2. There are two families of nitrogenous bases:
  1. ______(cytosine, thymine, and uracil)have a single six-membered ring
  1. ______(adenine and guanine) have a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring

Lecture Questions 5.5 Nucleic Acids Store and Transmit Hereditary Information

  1. List the major components of a nucleotide, and describe how these monomers are linked to form a nucleic acid.
  1. Distinguish between:
  2. pyrimidine and purine
  1. nucleotide and nucleoside
  1. ribose and deoxyribose
  1. 5 end and 3 end of a nucleotide