Research on Vocabulary
What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary refers to words that are used in speech and print to communicate. Vocabulary can be divided into two types: oral vocabulary, the words used in speaking or recognized in listening; and reading vocabulary, the words used in print (National Institute for Literacy 14).
Research findings suggest that there is not a single best way to teach vocabulary. “Yet, the National Reading Panel (2000) found tat vocabulary is learned both indirectly and directly, and that dependence on only one instructional method does not result in optimal growth” (Rasinski, et al. 12). Using a variety of techniques with repeated exposure to unknown words produces the best results. Vocabulary instruction needs to focus on teaching the skills and strategies that help students become independent word learners. These strategies include pre-teaching the meaning of unknown and difficult words; direct, explicit teaching of difficult words; and connecting unfamiliar words to prior knowledge (National Institute for Literacy 14)
Research also suggests three key methods for vocabulary growth: wide reading; direct, explicit instruction of words and word strategies; and a learning environment that fosters word knowledge (Yopp and Yopp 157).
Vocabulary plays an important part in reading comprehension. As early as 1924, researchers noted that growth in reading meant continuous growth in word knowledge (National Institute for Literacy). One of the most important findings in the research on vocabulary indicates the strong connection between vocabulary knowledge of readers and their ability to understand what they read (Blachowiczand Fisher 7). According to research by the National Reading Panel, (NRP) vocabulary knowledge is the single most important factor contributing to reading comprehension. Exposure to words through wide reading helps students construct and retain contexts for word meaning (Blachowicz and Fisher 7).
Proficient readers have a wide range of oral and print vocabulary; often, wordschema results from extensive and repeated exposure to words through speaking and reading. By pre-teaching the meaning of vocabulary words before students encounter them in text, reading and understanding is facilitated. Without knowing what words mean, readers cannot understand what they are reading (National Institute for Literacy 14). Once vocabulary words have been introduced, teachers need to continue to expose students to these same words so that they become part of the students’ oral and written vocabulary (National Institute for Literacy 14).
Direct vocabulary instruction improves comprehension, but prior knowledge and experience support increased vocabulary knowledge.
Word identification, the ability to decipher a particular word from a group of letters, and word analysis, the process of involved in understanding letters, sounds, prefixes, suffixes, and roots, to understand and use words, are important skills needed for vocabulary development.
In classrooms where vocabulary growth, awareness of new words, and a curiosity of word learning are promoted, vocabulary extends beyond the lesson or the classroom. Students become interested in word histories, play with words, and use new words in speech and writing.
Vocabulary in the Standards:
State Reading Goal 1. Apply word analysis and vocabulary skills to comprehend a selection
What does the research tell us about teaching vocabulary?
Vocabulary learning involves the learning of new concepts or new labels for already known concepts. Each content area has its own unique vocabulary. Content areas are distinguishable by the terminology and language they use, particularly the labels they use to identify important concepts. Most word learning takes place in content area study or thematic units.
Students in grades 3 through 12 learn 3,000 to 4,000 words per year; with only 300 to 400 words coming from formal instruction. By 5th grade, students will meet at least 10,000 words in their reading alone. Many represent challenging and unfamiliar content area concepts. To keep up, students need to learn at least 2,000 to 3, 000 words per year; to catch up, students need to exceed this rate. It is also estimated that the average high school graduate has acquired a vocabulary base of 40,000 words (Tompkins 1).
Research recommends integrating concept development with vocabulary teaching. Templeton and Pikulski (2000) suggest that students learn vocabulary in four specific ways: relating known words to concepts; relating new words to existing concepts; relating existing words to new concepts; and learning both new words and new concepts (Tompkins1).
Learners move from not knowing a word, to being somewhat acquainted with it, to attaining deeper, richer meaning that allows students to use the words.
An extensive vocabulary helps students read fluently, comprehend, discuss what they have read, and learn. (Padak, N. Teaching Vocabulary…)
Vocabulary growth occurs mainly through incidental and environmental learning, wide reading, discussion, listening, and the media. New words are learned directly and indirectly (National Institute for Literacy 14). Also, vocabulary is learned through vicarious experiences and through being read to. As students read and reread books, they begin to develop a more sophisticated understanding of word meanings and begin to use the words more frequently. Wide reading is the greatest mechanism for vocabulary growth.
Middle school students, in particular, need to talk about, select, and apply their knowledge of words in repeated, meaningful contexts. Repeated encounters with a word in oral and written contexts help provide experiences and clues to the word’s meaning that build over time.
How should vocabulary be taught (best practice)?
Research suggests that there is no single best way to teach vocabulary. Vocabulary learning can occur in a variety of ways, not always as teacher directed learning (Blachowicz and Fisher 43). However, many vocabulary strategies have been effective in improving adolescent literacy. Using a variety of techniques is most effective. Vocabulary instruction leads to gains in comprehension, but the methods must be appropriate to the age and ability of the reader.
Techniques for teaching vocabulary include repeated exposure to unknown word meanings; for teaching new vocabulary words, independent word learning strategies, such as dictionary use and context clues, are useful. Some vocabulary needs to be explicitly taught. This can betaught through specific word instruction and word learning strategieswith active engagement with words. Vocabulary instruction should focus on important words, key words, useful words, and difficult words.
Direct instruction of selected words results in small but significant improvement in reading comprehension. However, research continues to support the use of direct, explicit, systematic instruction for teaching vocabulary. Lessons should be fast-paced, brief, multi-sensory, and interactive so that students can see, write, and hear new words. Explicit instruction involves explaining word meanings and modeling the use of difficult content-area vocabulary in sentences relevant to the subject area. Teachers need to guide students to practice using vocabulary in different sentences and contexts and to give feedback. It is also beneficial to activate background knowledge and to provide activities that ask students to discover similarities and differences among concepts. In addition, it is important for teachers to provide time for students to practice using the new vocabulary; repeating the instructional steps until students are able to use the vocabulary independently in their reading, writing, and speaking.
To learn and retain new words and concepts, students need to connect these words and concepts to what they already know.Students also need repeated exposure to words and concepts and opportunities to practice them in different contexts.
Some key word learning strategies used by teachers include: the use of the dictionary; use of word parts; and use of context clues. Dictionary use for teaching vocabulary where students look up words and use the information to write sentences is not a recommended word-learning strategy. Students need instruction in dictionary work including modeling how to look up the meaning of unknown words and determining which definition best fits in the context.
Teaching students how to use information about word parts is valuable in promoting vocabulary growth. Modeling this strategy is especially helpful in content area vocabulary learning.
In all vocabulary learning strategies, modeling, guided practice, independently using the strategy, and applying the strategy is essential for increasing vocabulary. Students need 12 encounters with an unknown word to increase comprehension and word learning (
Students learn the meanings of words indirectly through everyday experiences with oral and written language. Students do so by engaging in oral language, by listening to adults read, and by reading extensively themselves.
Indirect vocabulary learning is extremely important. No matter what grade, students learn vocabulary from being read aloud; students learn words from hearing a variety of texts read to them. Reading aloud works best when teachers discuss the selection before, during, and after reading. Teachers need to discuss the new vocabulary and concepts and relate new words to prior experiences and concepts. Also, students should be encouraged to read independently and extensively on their own to learn vocabulary words indirectly.
In addition, teachers need to share their love of words with their students. Focusing on word histories and word origins and encouraging students to learn about words will encourage students to discover word meanings on their own (Padak).
What content should be included in teaching vocabulary?
Because students learn most new words incidentally through wide reading, helping them learn strategies is important to vocabulary development. Research suggests that key strategies include: efficient use of the dictionary; using word parts, such as prefixes, roots, suffixes, and compounds, to unlock meaning; and the use of context clues is essential. Students need to be given explicit instruction and modeling in how to look up the meaning of unfamiliar words and decide which the most appropriate definition in the context is. Modeling and teaching students how to use information about word parts can be extremely valuable in vocabulary development. Because much of the English language comes from Greek and Latin prefixes, roots, and suffixes, it has been proven that knowledge of these roots, often gives clues to word meanings. This is especially true in science because the terms are multi-syllabic. Thus, it would be good to teach derivatives. Teaching students strategies for using context clues to determine meaning is a significant strategy. Context clues include definitions, examples, and restatement.
Discussion is an important teaching strategy to improve vocabulary. From discussion, students can understand a word’s meaning from pieces of knowledge in a class discussion; good discussions can clarify meaning. Yet, not all words need discussion; the terms that are needed to understand a story should be reviewed and evaluated.
All content areas have specific vocabularies, and we cannot teach all words in a text which students need to know. Teachers should probably only teach a few words well per week so that the words and their meanings are retained; the time should be spent on direct vocabulary instruction. Also, students do know much of the text without knowing the meaning of every text word. Focus should be on important words, useful words, and difficult words. Words with multiple meaning should be directly and explicitly taught because they are particularly challenging for students. Also, idiomatic expressions can be difficult for students, especially ELL students, and often need to be explained in order to be understood(National Institute for Literacy 14).
Vocabulary Instruction for the ELL student
Second language learners of English have differing needs based on their age, educational experiences, language backgrounds, and cultures (Blachowicz and Fisher 181). A number of strategies have proven to be effective in improving the vocabulary of ELL students. According to the research, it is important to activate prior knowledge of words and concepts in the students’ native language in order for the students to understand the word in English ( The tasks assigned to ELL must be authentic. Rather than having the ELL students complete worksheets, students should be engaged in literature discussions or writing activities that are purposeful (Blachowiczand Fisher 181). Teaching ELL students how to use context clues, teaching morphological analysis, and teaching about cognates is important ( Read-alouds is another valuable approach to vocabulary teaching for the ELL students. Reading aloud to ELL students sharpens their listening skills and allows students to hear the phonetic variations of the English language. (Forum) Choral reading and partner reading are also useful strategies to use with ELL students. In addition, the use of pictures and charts aids ELL students to understand difficult words and texts. Other strategies for vocabulary instruction include: using audiotapes, videotapes, and computer programs. Also, using popular songs to teach vocabulary has shown to be quite effective in vocabulary learning (Blachowicz andFisher 185).
What role does technology play in vocabulary learning and instruction?
Research shows that vocabulary instruction using computer technology can be useful for struggling readers who need additional practice with vocabulary skills. Activities such as engaging in computer games, using hyperlinks where students can click on words and icons can add depth to vocabulary learning, utilizing online dictionaries rather than print dictionaries, finding content websites where students can access information, and computer programs which hold students’ interest, are extremely effective in vocabulary instruction. In recent research studies, the use of computers in instruction was found to be more effective than traditional methods; it is clearly seen as an aid in instruction.
How should vocabulary be assessed?
Vocabulary knowledge can be assessed in many ways (Research based principles for Adult Basic Education 2). Vocabulary tests can be formal or standardized or less formal, using teacher-made tests specifically for individual classes and content areas (Researched-Based Principles for Adult Basic Education 2).
It is imperative to consider that students remember more when they relate new information what they already know and as such, “it makes sense to prioritize words for students and to clearly stipulate those that are most important and that you intend to include in an assessment (Kinsella et al 1).
In an effort to successfully assess vocabulary knowledge, a distinction needs to be made between receptive and expressive vocabularies. A student’s receptive vocabulary includes words he/she can recognize; whereas a student’s expressive vocabulary includes words he/she can use correctly and with confidence (Kinsella et al 1).
Many formats for assessment like simple matching, writing a definition or using the word in an original sentence reveals little about a student’s actual word mastery; teachers should refrain from designing assessments of that nature. Those “merely tap short-term memorization” and do not hold long-term retention. Instead, relying upon assessments that are more meaningful and authentic, that require critical thinking and creative applications should be employed(Kinsella et al 1).
Some of the more effective formats suggested in research include items where students complete a compound sentence by writing the second independent clause of the sentence following a semi-colon where the vocabulary term in question is used in the first independent clause (Kinsella et al 1).
Students could also be asked to evaluate a sentence and decide whether each word makes sense in the context. A brief passage, which includes six to ten word blanks from the study list, could also be utilized so that students can either fill in the appropriate word in the passage (Kinsella et al 1).
The Gates-MacGinitie Reading Tests (GMRT) and SDRT are group-administered tests that use a multiple-choice format to measure students’ knowledge of word meaning. To measure receptive vocabulary, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—III (PPVT—III) is utilized. It is an individually administered test that requires the student to listen to the examiner pronounce a word and then select the right match from four pictures.
Obtaining more accurate estimates of students’ vocabulary knowledge should entail the administration of both reading and listening vocabulary. The Woodcock Language Proficiency Battery—Revised (WLPB-R) “measures vocabulary by asking students to supply a synonym or an antonym for a specific word” (Joshi 212).
“Informal reading inventories may provide valuable insight as to whether or not an inadequate vocabulary is adversely affecting a student’s reading comprehension” (Joshi 212).
Although the research reviewed by the National Reading Panel (NRP) did not directly address issues related to vocabulary assessment, the NRP completed a qualitative analysis of the ways in which researchers measure vocabulary and presented some tentative conclusions: (a) many measures of vocabulary are used and there is no one standard, so relying on only one measure may not provide sound results; (b) standardized tests may not be sensitive enough to measure the effects of some forms of instruction, so informal tests that more closely match instruction may be needed(Research based principles for Adult Basic Education 9). Because assessing a student’s vocabulary is quite difficult, and no single measure or strategy is enough, both standardized and informal inventories can prove useful (Joshi 212).