Viability of Canola Production and Processing in CYEC Facilities

Viability of Canola Production and Processing in CYEC Facilities

Nyeri and Lamuria, Kenya

By. Paige L Cross

Nutritional Science

Community, Environment, & Development

Penn State University

December 2010

Introduction

As a major oil seed crop, canola has the potential to be a profitable crop that could be produced in either the Nyeri location of the CYEC, in Central Province, or in their EcoVillage site in Lamuria, located in the Rift Valley Province. The CYEC, or Children and Youth Empowerment Center, is a Kenyan non-profit that provides housing, care, and educational and vocational training for Kenyan street youth. Agriculture is a critical component of their program, especially with the development of the Lamuria EcoVillage site, which is the exit program for the CYEC. Production of crops that could either bring high income or be used as staple products for own consumption is essential. Uses of canola include production of edible oils for use or sale, animal feed production, and production of biofuels. While there are concerns to the viability of canola production, especially in terms of rain fall, in both regions, there seems to be good potential, and in Nyeri, the opportunities for processing are well established, adding to the potential profitability the CYEC could gain from producing canola.

Background

Canola is a member of the Brassica family and comes in two varieties, Brassica napus (Argentine) and Brassica rapa (Polish) (Berglund et al., 2007). Canola also goes by the name Rapeseed, and is in fact an edible variety of the rapeseed family. Canola was developed in the 1970s in Canada, and is defined as having “less than 2% euric acid and less than 30 micromoles of glucosinolate per gram of meal,” which differentiates it from other, non-edible varieties of rapeseed. (Livingston et al.,1995). For the purposes of this project, cultivars from the Argentine family would be preferred because compared to the Polish family because argentine canola has a higher yield potential, grows taller, and has higher oil content. The only downside is that Brassica napus take about 15 days longer to mature than Brassica rapa (Berglund et al., 2007). Because of the specific agroclimactic need of both sites, time should be spent researching and discussing with other local farmers different local varieties within this cultivar that would be best suited for either Lamuria or Nyeri.

Canola as a crop has a number of positive attributes that make it a good candidate for cultivation, especially as an oil crop. The oil it produces is low in saturated fat, containing about 7%, has a long carbon chain that provides heat stability, and the plant itself has an overall oil content of about 40%, which is high when compared to the 20% found in soybean or cottonseed, other common oil crops (Livingston et al., 1995). This makes it a good source of edible oil for humans, as well as a good candidate for the production of biofuels. Adding to its viability in these areas is the fact that since it is a soft seeded plant, the extraction of the oil is relatively easy (Mahasi et al., 2007). Another positive advantage of canola is that its meal created during oil extraction is high in protein, with levels of about 38%. Furthermore, it can create a complete protein profile when combined with soy meal for animals, including positive trials with chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, pigs, and dairy and beef animals (Berglund et al., 2007). This makes it an excellent animal feed, either alone or in combination with soy meal, which could be very beneficial to the CYEC as they expand their own animal husbandry programs.

Agroclimatic Needs

Canola has some very specific agroclimatic needs that will affect its viability in the two sites. In terms of soil, canola does best in a clay-loam soil because it is resistant to crusting, but can still grow well in a variety of soil types (Berglund et al., 2007). As we demonstrated in our previous report, “Lamuria Kenya and Potential Projects for the EcoVillage,” the soils in Lamuria are traditionally Luvic Phaozems or Chromic Luvisols, both of which are well-drained clay soils. However, they are also prone to crusting, which is damaging to canola. The soils in Nyeri are traditionally “Kikuyu silt loam,” which would contain less clay than a clay-loam soil, but both would contain a high amount of silt. Another potential problem is that canola is not very drought tolerant, and high heat, in the range of 85⁰ to 95⁰F (29.4⁰ - 35⁰C) can reduce yields by damaging seedlings or reduce oil content in developing seeds, which gain maximum oil content at temperatures between 50⁰ to 70⁰F (10⁰ - 21⁰C) (Berglund et al., 2007). As we previously reported, Lamuria has a mean annual temperature of 15⁰C, and annual ranges of daytime temperature between 7.2⁰C and 15⁰C, which makes it a good fit in terms of temperature. Detailed climate data for Nyeri is not readily available from sources accessible in the US, but many travel websites, such as one called “World 66” report temperature ranges from 12C⁰ to 29⁰C, also which would make it a good fit. The big concern here is in terms of rainfall and drought potential. It is well known that Kenya has faced drought issues in the past few years, and low rainfall can affect the successfulness of a canola crop. As we previously pointed out, Lamuria is rather dry due to the rainshadow effect of Mt. Kenya, and annual rainfall averages between 450 and 750mm, with the long rains, which would make sense as the planting and growing period for canola in this area, occurring from March through June. In Nyeri, while refutable data is hard to come by, travel websites, like the one mentioned above, report rainfall varying from 300mm to about 900mm during the rainy season, with the peak occurring in April. In the first dekad of 2010, Nyeri experienced 35.4mm of rain, and an average daily temperature of 24.1⁰C (Kenya Meteorological Department, 2010). Canola’s water needs are about 450mm during the season, and it can consume up to 7mm a day during peak growing periods, meaning that during a drought the amount of rain falling in these two regions might not be adequate to sustain the canola crop, and reduced yields or crop failure might be the result (Efetha et al., 2008). The pH needs for canola are between 5.8 and 7.5 (Livingston et al., 1995). The pH of the soil in Lamuria is between 7and 8, potentially on the high side, while the pH of the soils at the CYEC is on the acidic end, between 5 and 6, which could also potentially be an issue if it is too low (Ming’ate, 2010). Further tests may be required to determine if it is necessary to add materials to the soil to move the pH to the proper range. Finally, the elevation needs to grow canola in the Tropics are between 1800 and 2700m (Mahasi, 2007). The elevation of Nyeri is 1750m, making it a little low, but more or less suitable, while the elevation of Lamuria is 1898m, fitting into the low end of the range. Overall, both sites are more or less agroclimatically suited for canola production, although there are serious concerns surrounding the risk of soil crusting in Lamuria, elevation in Nyeri, and the threat of drought in both regions.

Cropping Schemes

It is generally agreed that canola grows best when produced in rotation with other crops. Data from the US shows that rotating canola with a cereal grain, with at least two seasons between plantings would be one possibility. This is because of the risk of diseases such as blackleg disease and sclerotinia stem rot (Sclerotinia white mold), which may or may not be problems of concern in Kenya (Berglund et al., 2007). Blackleg disease, according to Berglund et al. (2007), can “produce deep-stem girdlingcankers near the soil line,” and reduce plant vigor while causing lodging and sclerotina stem rot, which is a fungus that can survive for long period of time in the soil, and can cause extensive damage during wet periods. Due to the lack of available data on canola production in Kenya, it is advised that the CYEC check with local agricultural authorities to learn more about the diseases and pests that can affect canola crops in Kenya. Of the research available on canola production in Kenya, canola is found to grow successfully in various cropping systems such as in rotational cropping, as mentioned before, relay or intercropping, or as a cover crop, trap crop, or fodder crop (Mahasi, 2007). In Nyeri, farmers producing canola for use in biofuel production intercrop it with wheat and castor oil, two other potentially valuable crops (Wahinya, 2009). Crops that could be rotated with canola include flax, soybean, field peas, and lentil; however, care should be taken not to plant canola shortly after a crop to which herbicides such as ulfonylurea, imidazolinone, and those of the triazine class, such as atrazine, were applied, because the residues of these chemicals can kill or harm the canola crop (Berglund et al., 2007).

Planting

Information on the actual planting practices for canola is mainly available for US or Canadian cultivation, and therefore has been adapted for use in Lamuria or Nyeri in this paper. The CYEC should contact local agencies, such as the “Help Self Help Center” in Nyeri, which reportedly provides local farmers with technical advice on the growing, management, and harvesting of canola (Wahinya, 2009). Berglund et al. (2007) from the University of North Dakota explains the need for a firm, moist seed bed to prevent the damage that soil crusting can cause to the canola seeds. Livingston et al. (2005) from Texas A&M University also stress the importance of having a seedbed that is initially free of weeds, heavy crop residues, and large clods. For seed depth and spacing, Berglund et al. (2007) suggest a range of depth between .5-1in, with depth not exceeding 1in, and spacing of 6 to 7in between rows, while Livingston et al. (1995) suggest a range in depth between 3/8 to 1/2in, and 6 to 12in spacing between rows. In general, about 5 – 8 pounds of seed are applied per acre of Argentine canola, however, it is important to know the seed count per pound, and adjust so that there are about 600,000 plants per acre (Berglund et al., 2007). With Argentine canola, according to Berglund et al. (2007), hybrid varieties contain between 75,000 to 85,000 seeds per pound, while open-pollinated varieties contain between 135,000 and 160,000 seeds per pound. Overall, proper planting is critical, and doing it properly is necessary to ensure a successful crop.

Input Considerations

Like all crops, canola has certain key nutrient requirements. In canola, the most frequently limiting nutrients are nitrogen and sulfur, which is used in high quantity by canola, and should be available at appropriate levels (Berglund et al., 2007). In the US, it is recommended to provide nitrogen and sulfur in the forms of chemical fertilizers, with ammonium sulfate being the appropriate form of sulfur (Berglund et al., 2007). However, in this instance, due to issues of cost and sustainability, the use of organic fertilizers, such a manure or compost would be preferable. When applying forms of fertilizer, they should be applied in a band that is at least 2in away from the seeds themselves (Berglund et al., 2007). Weeds can obviously be a problem, and Berglund et al. (2007) suggest a mix of cultural, mechanical, and chemical weed control, such as following cultural planting practices to maximize canola growth to compete with weeds, avoiding tillage and other intensive manual weed control methods that may damage the crops, and using soil-incorporated, canola safe herbicides such as Trifluralin or Sonalan. Because of the cost and sustainability issue mentioned above, the cultural and mechanical methods should be prioritized over the chemical methods in the CYEC sites. One additional option is the use of GMO varieties of canola, such as Liberty resistant canola, Clearfield resistant canola, and RoundUp resistant canola, which allow for application of traditional herbicides (Berglund et al., 2007). There are both advantages and disadvantages to the use of GMO varieties. GM crops currently make up 7% of all canola varieties, and are therefore readily available (FAO, 2001). Dr. Katherine Hauge-Madsen, in another FAO report explains that herbicides do have positive effects, such as controlling weeds in no-tillage systems, thus preventing soil erosion and preserving soil moisture for plant production (FAO , 2003). Using herbicides for weed control also reduces the need for labor. However, there are also significant downsides to GM crops, such as the fact they require the purchase of expensive inputs such as herbicides and fertilizers, and the seeds cannot be saved because of intellectual property rights. Seed of these GM canola varieties is expensive, which can become a bottleneck to its adoption in Kenya. In its report on biotechnology, the FAO notes possible disadvantages of these types of crops, such as sometimes having higher nutrient requirements, undesired gene movement that could potentially threaten biodiversity, and possible environmental hazards (FAO, 2001). In addition to its effects on the target species, the use of GM crops, and the inputs associated with them, can also harm non-target species, especially beneficial soil organisms, plants, and pests. For the CYEC, the use of GM crops should be avoided because of the high financial cost associated with the annual purchase or inputs and seeds, as well as the drain it can take on natural resources such as soil quality and biodiversity.

Harvesting

Harvesting of canola is the last major process before processing and marketing of the product can be considered, and proper harvesting is essential to ensure a successful harvest, and profitable, usable yields. As previously mentioned, Argentine canola takes 95 days to reach maturity. Canola is an indeterminate plant, meaning that the plant matures from the bottom up, signaled by a change in color from green to brown (Livingston et al., 1995). One major consequence of this, according to Livingston et al. (1995) is the risk of seed shattering, where the mature seed pods at the bottom of the plants break open while the top pods still contain immature, green seed. One way to protect against this is to swath the crop. To determine when to swath, one should expect fields every two to three days after the first pods begin to change color on the main stem. The swathing itself should be done to a height of 10-12in above the soil surface when 15% of pods have had some color change (Berglund et al., 2007), although Livingston et al. (1995) suggest a color change percentage more along the lines of 30% and a swathing height of 9 in.. High stubble length protects against crop loss from rains by keeping the seed pods off the ground (Livingston et al., 1995). After swathing, the plants should be allowed to cure in the field for 10-14days before combining with any variety of combine (Berglund et al., 2007). Swathing itself, however, is not always necessarily, and a canola crop can be harvested directly once pods reach 8- 10% moisture level, which should happen when the pods turn light brown, about 3 to 4 weeks after the pods reach full size (Livingston et al., 1995). It is likely possible that the grain can be threshed manually, or that it can be transported to a stationary threshing machine, but this is something that will have to be evaluated using resources on the ground. Because of the costs associated with machinery and technology, the later method would likely be preferred for the sites used by the CYEC. In Nyeri district, canola yields can reach 1000kg per acre in two years (Wahinya, 2009). However, these yields can be reduced by half if rainfall is low. In the study by Mahasi et al. (2007), which places the potential for canola production in Kenya at 275 to 737 lbs/A ,the most productive cultivar of canola produced about 400 lbs/A in the second year with good rains, but only 217 lbs/A during the first year when rains were poor. This again reinforces the effect that drought can have on canola yields, which should be a major concern in this region.