UNIT ONE LECTURE NOTES
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Adolescence
Spring,2010
UMass Boston
Jean Rhodes
About this course
n Three Units:
n Theories of Adolescence; Growth and Change
n Adolescents in Relationships
n Adolescents in Context: Social Roles, Communities, Risk & Resilience
n Emphasis on contextual and sociocultural issues
n Emphasis on critical thinking and self-reflection
n Mix of lecture, activities, discussion, question-and-answer and multi-media
Requirements
n 2 of 3 Unit Exams (80%)
n Paper, 2-3 pages each (15%)
n Class Participation (5%)
Defining Adolescence
n When does it begin?
n What does it end?
One Definition
n According to the book…
n Adolescence is from approximately 10-13 years to 18-22 years
n Early Adolescence = approx. 11-14 years
n Late Adolescence = approx. 15-20 years
Variability in Adolescence
n But, is it the same for everyone?
n If not, what accounts for differences between people?
n Potential “markers” of adolescence
n Age
n Biological transitions (e.g., puberty)
n Social roles (e.g., high school graduation, moving out of the home)
n Characteristics (e.g., independence, decision-making abilities)
Inventionist View
n “Adolescence is a sociohistorical creation”
n Result of widespread changes
n Child labor laws
n Mandatory schooling through teenage years
n Other laws differentiating youth from adults (e.g., driving, drinking, voting)
Another Point of View
n Newt Gingrich on Adolescence (October 2008)
Stereotypes
n Generalization that reflects impressions/beliefs about a broad category of people
n Stereotypes carry an image of what a typical member of the group is like
What are some stereotypes of adolescents?
Stereotypes of Adolescents
n Lazy
n Entitled, Spoiled, Self-Centered
n Rebellious Risk-takers
n Use drugs
n Sexually promiscuous
n Commit “delinquent” acts
n Immoral
n Dramatic, Overly Emotional, “Emo”
n Don’t get along with adults
Stereotypes within Psychology
n G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)
n First President of APA (1892)
n Wrote Adolescence in 1904
n “Father of Adolescent Psychology”
n Time of Storm and Stress
n Very influential
“Storm and Stress”
Problems with Stereotypes
n Not always true!
n Cross-cultural studies – Margaret Mead
A More Positive Picture
n 73% of adolescents from a cross-cultural study reported a positive self-image
n The majority participate in some form of community service
n Relatively low levels of risk behaviors
n Only 9% smoke cigarettes regularly
n Less than 20% binge drink
n In the 2000s, decreases in various risk behaviors
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies
n Stereotypes can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies
n “You get what you expect”
n Idea that expectations and biases can elicit anticipated outcomes
Adolescent Population: Diverse
Adolescent Population: Growing
Adolescent Population: Growing in Diversity
Changes to 2100
Implications of Increased Diversity
n Need to understand diversity in adolescent development
n Need to increase cultural knowledge and competence
Variation in Experiences: Settings
Variation in Experiences: Diversity by Region
In the United States & Beyond
n Variation in socioeconomic markers (e.g., poverty, family structure, high school dropout rate) by race and ethnicity in the US, which can affect development; however, we don’t want to essentialize differences
n Percent of adolescents in population varies by country (e.g., 14.5% in USA are 10-19 years vs. 17% in Rwanda are 10-14 years old)
n Nature of transition to adulthood varies cross-culturally (e.g., in options available, labor, gender issues)
Some Global Trends
n Health
n Improvement overall, but continued “health-compromising behaviors,” HIV in sub-Saharan Africa
n Family
n Variation in family structure – extensive kin networks; changes in number of divorced and single parent families and stepfamilies
n Increase in maternal employment
n Increase in migration/mobility
n Gender
n In general, girls have lower access to educational and career options; more restricted sexual expression
n Gender gaps narrowing across the world
More on Global Trends
n Schools
n Number of adolescents in school overall
n Unequal access to schooling among adolescents
n Peers
n Peers tend to play a major role in adolescents’ lives, particularly in Western countries (e.g., USA, UK, Canada)
n Variation across countries – with peers playing a greater role in some cultures, and more of a restricted role (particularly for girls) in others
Theories of Adolescence
From Freud to Bronfenbrenner
Brief Review of Last Time
n Defining Adolescence
n Age
n Biological Development
n Social Roles
n Historical Forces
n Psychological Characteristics
n Stereotypes of Adolescents
n Not always true!
n Can lead to self-fulfilling prophesies
n Can have consequence for social policies
Brief Review of Last Time
n Two Major Figures in Adolescent Psychology
n Stanley Hall – Father of Adolescent Psychology; adolescence as “storm and stress”
n Margaret Mead – Research in Samoa; adolescence smooth there
n Statistics about Adolescents in the US
n More diverse than total population
n Growing in diversity (particularly increases in Hispanic/Latino and Asian populations)
Today
n 3 major issues in Developmental Psychology
n Major theories in Adolescent Psychology
Issue #1: Nature vs. Nurture
n Nature: Biological influences (heritability, genetics)
n Examples à growth during childhood; hormones during puberty
n Nurture: Environmental influences
n Examples influence of nutrition; medical care; family; peers; schools; community; media; culture
n A matter of emphasis – which one is more important.
Example of Continued Debate: Gender Differences in Math
n Larry Summers
Issue #2: Continuity vs. Discontinuity
n Continuity: Development involves gradual, cumulative change
n Development as being quantitative
n Example – A child’s first word
n Discontinuity: Development involves distinct stages
n Each stage is qualitatively different from the next
n Example – Abstract thinking
Issue #3: Early vs. Late Experience
n Issue of which ones are the key determinants of development
n Question: If an infant experiences a negative, stressful or traumatic circumstance, can this be overcome by more positive experiences in adolescence?
n Emphasis has traditionally been on early experience; now more emphasis on growth and development over the lifespan (e.g., Jerome Kagan’s work)
Overall…
n Best not to take an extreme viewpoint in any of the three debates
n Nonetheless, there continue to be arguments about the nature of development (particularly for nature vs. nurture)
Many, Many Theories
n Psychoanalytic Theories
n Psychoanalytic (Freud, etc.)
n Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)
n Cognitive Theories
n Cognitive Developmental (Piaget)
n Sociocultural Cognitive Theory (Vygotsky)
n Information Processing
n Behavioral Theory (Skinner)
n Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)
n Ecological Theory(Bronfrenbrenner)
The Many, Many Theories
n Psychoanalytic Theories
n Psychoanalytic (Freud, etc.)
n Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)
n Cognitive Theories
n Cognitive Developmental (Piaget)
n Sociocultural Cognitive Theory (Vygotsky)
n Information Processing
n Behavioral Theory (Skinner)
n Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)
n Ecological Theory (Bronfrenbrenner)
Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Freud emphasis the “unconscious”
Freud: Parts of the Mind
n Id (unconscious)
n Aggressive and sexual impulses and instincts
n Superego (mostly unconscious)
n The “conscience,” moral part of the mind
n Leads to guilt about id impulses
n Ego (mostly conscious)
n “Executive Branch” of the mind, makes rational decisions
n Resolves conflicts between the id, superego and reality
n An Artistic Explanation
Freud on Personality
n Just the tip of the iceberg!
n Tensions between different parts of the mind resolved through defense mechanisms.
n Repression: pushing unacceptable id impulses and painful memories into the unconscious mind
Freud: Psychosexual Stages
Stages Relevant to Us
n Latency Stage (6 yrs – puberty)
n Sexual impulses are repressed
n Child develops intellectual and social skills
n Genital Stage (puberty on)
n “Sexual reawakening”
n Source of sexual pleasure is now outside of the family
Is Latency for Real?
Some Critiques of Freud
n Overemphasis on sexual instincts
n Lack of scientific support
n Overly negative image of people
Behaviorist View: B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Operant Conditioning
n The consequences of an action produce changes in the probability of that action occurring again
n Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior
n Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior
Social Cognitive Theory:Albert Bandura (1925-)
n Behavior is learned through interactions with the social environment
n Reciprocal influences between behavior, environment and cognition.
Bobo Doll Experiment
Ecological Theory
n Urie Brofrenbrenner (1917-2005)
n Developmental Psychologist, Co-Founder of Head Start
n Development reflects the influence of five Environmental Systems
n Emphasis on environment (vs. biology)
Bronfrenbrenner’s Systems
n The Individual
n Sex, Race/Ethnicity, Health, Age
n Microsystem
n Settings adolescent spends his/her time; and individuals within them (Family, Peers, School, Neighborhood)
n Adolescent helps shape these settings
n Mesosystem
n Relationships between different Microsystems
n Examples: relationship between school and family experiences; family and peer experiences
Bronfrenbrenner’s Systems (cont.)
n Exosystem
n Links between adolescents immediate context and settings in which adolescent does not have an active role
n Examples: mother’s experience at work; conflict between teacher and his wife
n Macrosystem
n Culture – “behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a group of people, passed on from generation to generation”
n Examples: Cultural ideas about what the role of a parent should be, what the role of a teacher should be; laws and practices affecting adolescents
Bronfrenbrenner’s Systems (cont.)
n Chronosystem
n Timing of Life Events
n Example: impact of divorce on family functioning decreases over time
n Historical Circumstances
n Examples: Greater career opportunities for girls; Greater acceptance of GBLT community
n Recent Addition of Biological Influences = Bioecological Theory
Fill out Survey for Next Class!
More Theory & Research Methods
Brief Review of Last Time
§ Three Major Issues in Development Psychology
• Nature vs. Nature
• Continuity vs. Discontinuity
• Early vs. Late Experience
§ Theories of Development
o Psychosexual Theory (Freud)
o Behavioral Theory (Skinner)
o Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura)
o Ecological Theory (Bronfrenbrenner)
Today
§ Theory of Emerging Adulthood
§ Research Methods
Results of Our Class Survey
§ Subjective Adult Identity Status
§ Others’ Perceptions of Adult Status
§ 18 participants (14 F, 4 M)
SAIS
SAIS – Most of the Time Only
Others’ Perceptions
Differences By Age
§ Significant relationships between age and both measures
§ Looked at individual items
o SAIS
– Work
– Friends
– Parents
– Romantic
o Others’ Perceptions
– Others at Work
– The World
Differences by Gender
§ None!
§ Could have been due to so few men in the class (only 4 completed the survey)
Emerging Adulthood
§ Recent addition to developmental theory
§ Idea that there is a period between adolescence and young adulthood in which people are not quite adults, but not adolescents either
§ Approximate age range: 18 to 25 years
§ Subjective Adulthood: psychological experience of “feeling like adult” and thinking of oneself as an adult
Stereotypes & Critiques
§ Similar to stereotypes about adolescents
o Lazy
o Immature
o Selfish, Entitled
o Stressed out!
§ In the popular press…
o “Millennials”
o “Adultolescents,” “Kidadults,” “Rejuvenilles”
o “Quarterlife crisis”
Emerging Adults in Popular Culture
Books About Emerging Adults
Books About Emerging Adults
5 Traditional Adult Roles
• Marriage
• Parenthood
• Leaving Parental Home
• Finishing School
• Establishing Financial Independence
Completing the Adulthood Transition in 1960 and 2000
Historical Changes
§ Increasing necessity to have a college degree (or more)
§ Increase in women’s employment
o Women less reliant on men for financial stability
o Women delaying childbirth to focus on education and careers
§ Technological advancements
o Birth Control / Fertility treatments
§ Cultural changes
o Greater acceptance of single women
o Greater acceptance of diversity in family structure
Jeffrey Jensen Arnett
§ Subjective Adulthood is less about social roles, but more about personal qualities
o Accepting responsibility
o Making independent decisions
§ Emerging Adulthood
o Self-Focused (not selfish)
o Identity Exploration
o Instability
o Feeling “In-Between”
§ Video clip (6:11)
Critiques of Arnett
§ Issue of whether Emerging Adulthood (as Arnett sees it) is a luxury
§ For some people, social roles (particularly parenthood) still matter for subjective adulthood (Johnson et al., 2007; Reize, 2006)
Critiques of Emerging Adulthood
§ Is this really a new?
o Middle Ages (400-1500): qualities of rationality and responsibility were considered markers of adulthood (Youngs, 2006)
o Early Modern England (1300-1500): the transition to adulthood was seen as a gradual process of acquiring social roles and character qualities (Ben-Amos, 1994)
Research Methods: Data Collection
§ Observation (Laboratory or Naturalistic)
§ Surveys /Interviews
§ Standardized Tests
Data Collection: Physiological Measures
Data Collection: Experience Sampling
§ Palm pilot goes off at random times
§ Person fills out survey of what they are doing, who they’re with, how they’re feeling, etc.
Data Collection: Case Study
§ In-depth portrait of an individual person
§ Often used by mental health professionals
Research Designs
§ Descriptive
o “25% of people ages 10-20 do this…”
§ Correlation
o Shows that two variables are related or associated
o Correlation Coefficient (r)
§ Ranges from -1 to +1
§ -1 means completely inversely related [high levels of one variable associated with low levels the other]
§ 0 means completely unrelated
§ +1 means completely directly related [high levels of one variable associated with high levels of the other]
Correlation DOES NOT Equal Causation
§ You find that 2 variables A and B are related; could be 1 of 3 scenarios