Unit 8 the Use of English (I)

Unit 8 The Use of English (I)

[Check your understanding]

State whether each of the following statements is True or False.

1. In pragmatics, context refers to the sentences preceding and following the current word or sentence. F

Note: In pragmatics, “context” may refer to anything that bears on the production or comprehension of the current utterance.

2. Not all sentences we produce are meant to do things. F

Note: In a strict sense, all sentences we produce are meant to do something.

3. A perlocutionary act is performed by the hearer. F

Note: A perlocutionary act can also be done by the speaker, as in the case of a promise.

4. “I”, “now”, “here”, and “yesterday” are all deictic expressions. T

5. “John cooked Jane a cake” presupposes “John cooked something for Jane”. F

Note: “John cooked Jane a cake” entails “John cooked something for Jane”

■ In-Class Activities

1. ASK:

(1) What is the intended meaning in each case?

One is to give information about where diapers can be changed for infants; the other is to call on people to vote against Bush.

(2) Where do you expect to find them?

One is often found in public toilets and the other was used before U.S. presidential election in which Bush was a candidate.

(3) Do the non-linguistic illustrations help you understand the language used?

Yes.

2. ASK:

(1) What aspects of context have to be considered in order to interpret such expressions?

(a)Notice on office door: Back in one hour.

To know when the owner of the office will be back, one has to know when he or she left the office.

(b)Telephone answering machine: I’m not here now.

“I” refers to the owner of the telephone. “here” refers to the office or home where the telephone is installed. “now” refers to any time when the call comes in.

(c)Watching a horse race: Oh, no, I’m in last place.

“I” refers to someone who places a bet on the horse that is now in the last place.

(d)On a map/directory: YOU ARE HERE.

(Some traveler reading a map/directory) “You” refers to someone who is reading the map/directory.

(e)In a car that won’t start: Maybe I’m out of gas.

(A car breaking down) “I” refers to the car in question.

(2) Are there any problems with understanding the utterances?

The deictic expressions are not used in their usual ways.

(3) How are deictic expressions “strategically” used below?

1)本饮料自购买之日起三个月内可饮用。

The day of purchase can be any day.

2)大甩卖最后三天。

The manufacturer should have dated the time of production. “最后三天” is indeterminate without knowing the date from which one counts the last three days.

3. ASK:

(1) Can you give an example for each of the cases to demonstrate the varied usages of “we”?

a. We must finish our breakfast before 8 a.m.

b. Can we stop chatting in class, your guys?

c. Let’s give the speaker a warm applause.

d. In this paper we are going to explore……

(2) Does the Chinese“我们”share the deictic properties of “we”?

Yes.

(3) Discuss the use of “me” in the following pictures.

“Me” refers to the card in the first picture and the car in the second. In both cases, it is used for the effect of personalification.

4. ASK:

(1) What are the characteristics of “you” in each case?

-- gestural:You, you, but not you, are dismissed. (pointing a finger at one after another)

Need to use a pointing finger.

-- symbolic: Do you have any questions? (said by a teacher in class)

The teacher does not focus on any of the students.

-- anaphoric: Jane, do you know John comes from Britain?

Need an antecedent.

-- substantial:You can never tell what sex they are nowadays.

Conventionalized as in “You can never tell…”

(2) Does Chinese “你” have similar usages?

Yes.

(3) Use examples to illustrate the varied usages of “this”, “that”, “left”, “there”, and “here”.

There you go again.

There we go.

I did this and that.

5. ASK:

(1) Do the following count as promises? If not, why?

(a) I promise I’ll fail you in the exam.

No, because failing someone is not to the benefit of the addressee.

(b) I promise that next Friday will be his birthday.

No, because next Friday will come regardless of the promise.

(c) I promise that I saw him yesterday.

No. It is not about some future action.

(d) I promise that you’ll help me out of trouble.

No. It is not the addressee who benefits.

(e)John promises that he’ll help Jane.

No. The one who promises is not the current speaker.

(f) I promised that I would help him.

No. The act of promising here is not a current one.

(2) What are the specific felicity conditions for thanking and advising?

Thanking:

Propositional content condition: The thanker has said something that shows his or her gratitude.

Preparatory condition: The addressee has done something to the thanker’s benefit.

Sincerity condition: The thanker really intends to show his or her gratitude.

Essential condition: The act of saying the words will count as a token of thanks to the effect that the addressee feels the gratitude shown to him or her.

Advising:

Propositional content condition: The adviser has said something that will do good to the addressee in relation to the latter’s current need;

Preparatory condition: The addressee faces some trouble or difficulty that he or she cannot manage; the adviser has the capacity to give help;

Sincerity condition: The adviser has the intention to help the addressee out;

Essential condition: What the adviser says will lead the addressee to solve the trouble or difficulty in question.

(3) Do the following count as thanking acts in the strict sense?

No. Because the expected acts have not been done.

6. ASK:

(1) How are the expressions different in realizing the request?

(a) refers to the hearer’s ability; (b) implicitly refers to the hearer’s wants; (c) projects on a hypothetical perspective on the hearer’s action; (d) drops a broad hint.

(2) Why are people indirect in communication? Meanwhile, take the following into consideration:

Performing indirect speech acts can get rid of the negative aspects brought up by the literal interpretation. Indirect speech is a kind of politeness strategies speakers may adopt in communicating. It is quite essential to soothe the interaction. But indirectness is risky andcostly.

(3) Are the Chinese equally indirect when performing requests? How about you?

Omit.

7. ASK:

(1) For (a), we can also say “I thank you”. What would be the difference?

“I thank you” is more formal and serious than “thank you”.

(2) We can say “Sorry” in English as a way of apologizing but we don’t say “Apologize” for the same purpose. What might be your explanation for this difference?

“Sorry” is an elliptical way of saying “I’m sorry.” We do not use a single verb like “apologize” as a complete utterance, unless it is conventionalized.

(3)For (b), we can also say “I see your point now”. What would be the difference? Also consider the use of “now” in the following pictures.

It’s more emphatic.

(4) For (c), we can also say I’m telling you that he is dishonest” and for (d) we might have said“I’m asking you if you will go or not.” What would be the difference?

Both cases involve emphasis.

8. ASK:

(1) /(2) What is the presupposed information in each of the ads?What is the linguistic device that makes the presupposition inferable?

Some supermarkets sell for much. (the comparative degree)

The addressee has a wife. (definite description)

Some people think layovers are bad. (negation)

The addressee will take another vacation. (definite description)

(3) / (4) What is the presupposed information in each of the headlines?What is the linguistic device that makes the presupposition inferable?

a. There were battles over same-sex marriage. (renew: change-of-state verb)

b. There used to be some kind of scrutiny for every speck on the Shuttle. [new: change-of-state adjective]

c. Federer has won three Wimbledon titles. [fourth: ordinal term]

d. There is a place called Baghdad. [Baghdad: definite description]

e. Seoul and Tokyo used to be on close terms. [divide: change-of-state verb]

f. There was a plane crash in Russia. [Russian plane crash: definite description]

(4) Can you think of some other presupposition triggers?

Various clauses. E.g.

The boys who wanted to play football were disappointed when it rained.

This sentence contains two cases of presupposition:

a. The boy wanted to play football.

b. It rained.

(5) Presupposition may also be taken advantage of by judges at court. Here are some questions they might raise. What presupposition(s) might have been objected to in each case?

(a) How did you know that the defendant had bought a knife?

The defendant had bought a knife.

(b) How long have you been selling cocaine?

The addressee has been selling cocaine.

(c) Did you see the murdered woman before she left the office?

The murdered woman left the office.

(d) How far was the car going when the driver ran the red light?

The driver ran the red light.

(a)Why did you leave the scene of the crime?

The addressee left the scene of the crime.

9. ASK:

(1) Can you give two examples involving the presence of presupposition triggered by each type?

Omit.

(2) Can you find some types of adverbs in English that serve to trigger presuppositions?

repetitive adverb: again

reverse adverbs: back

10. ASK:

(1) In the last example, the presupposed information has been canceled for some non-linguistic reason. What is the reason?

One cannot do anything once he is dead.

(2) Can you give more examples in which presupposition may be suspended?

Omit.

Task 3: Study Questions

1. Suppose someone said that a grammar must describe what a speakermeans in uttering an expression from the language, and that it must do this for every meaningful expression. What problems are there with this proposal?

a. We cannot exhaust all possible sentences in a language.

b. There may be mismatches between what is said and what is meant.

2. What kind of context is required for the interpretation of each text above?

a. In a casino or a lottery station

b. In an airport.

c. In Hollywood, Celebrities distinguish themselves by their hand prints. Ordinary people or visitors like to model themselves on these people.

d. In an electronic appliances shop. “A great deal” is ambiguous.

3. How are the deictic expressions in the following utterances projected for special effects?

(a) (Boss to clerk) We complimented ourselves too soon, John.

Here “we” refers only to John.

(b) (Doctor to patient) How are we feeling today?

Here “we” refers only to the patient.

(c)(Mum to Dad) We’re in a bad mood today.

Here “we” refers only to the baby.

Can you add more examples of a similar kind either from English or Chinese?

Omit.

4. What is the default deictic center of “come” and “go”? How can they, “come” in particular, be used for some special effects at the cost of the deictic center? Does Chinese “来”behave in a similar way to “come”? Are there other verbs in English that contain deictic information?

The “default deictic center is the speaker.

Take (3) for example. It treats the addressee as the deictic center. Generally, “go” is used in this case.

Chinese “来”does not behave in an exactly similar way to “come”.

In English, verbs like “bring” and “take” also encode deictic information.

5. Suppose it is 26 July,Monday, today. When we want to mention July 27, Tuesday, we normally will say “tomorrow” instead of “on July 27” or “on Tuesday”. This is what we call the pre-emtive usage of deictic expressions. How do you explain it? Is this also true in Chinese?

Calendric time is absolute time, whereasdeictic time is relative time.

It seems true in Chinese, at least.

6. All of the following expressions have deictic elements in them. What aspects of context have to be considered in order to interpret such expressions? Perhaps there are others of a similar type that you could add to this list.

a. NBA slogan: I love this game!

Although “this game” is deictic, it refers only to NBA. Although “I” can be anybody, it refers only to some NBA fan.

b. McDonald’sslogan: I’m loving it.

“I” refers to anyone who patronizes Mc Donald. The present progressive aspect is also deictic is that it points to any point of time in progress.

c. Advertisement for Nike sports shoes: Just do it.

The simple tense is deictic, signaling the present time for “doing it”. “It” is not deictic but anaphoric, although its antecedent is absent.

d. Answering a telephone: Oh, it’s you.

Here, “you” can be anyone who calls in.

e. Pointing to an empty chair: Where is she today?

“today” can be any day when the utterance is made.“she”refers to the one who normally sits on the chair but who is not here at the moment. It is (gesturally) deictic because we need to look in the context for the referent of the pronoun "she" being pointed to the speaker. It is not anaphoric because it has no antecedent.

7. Writers do not assume their readers have blank minds. Rather, they depend on the readers’ background knowledge to develop their ideas and interact with them. One way of doing so is the use of presupposition. The following excerpt is the opening of Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights.Read it carefully and detect the presupposed information as much as you can.

a. I visited my landlord.

b. I have a landlord.

c. I live in England.

d. I have fixed on a situation completely removed from the stir of society.

e. There is desolation between Mr. Heathcliff and me.

f. My heart warmed towards him.

g. I beheld his black eyes withdraw so suspiciously under their brows.

h. I rode up.

i. His fingers sheltered themselves.

j. I announced my name.

k. Mr. Heathcliff made a nod.

Some information is conveyed as background information by means of presupposition trigger.

8. Discuss the following utterances in terms of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.

a. Locutionary: representative (stating that the sea food is fresh)

Illocutionary: directive (inviting patronage)

b. Locutionary: representative (stating that the “intel” processor can work all the time)

Illocutionary: directive (urging customers to buy the product)

c. Locutionary: representative (informing that only ticket passengers can take the coach)

Illocutionary: directive (commanding the passengers to show their tickets)

d. Locutionary: representative (informing that the wall is for rent)

Illocutionary: directive (inviting ads)

The perlocutionary act for all of the above has to be decided by reference to the actual effect produced by the utterances.

9. Compare the following utterances. How are they different, pragmatically speaking?

(a) If I were you, I'd leave the room. (polite advice)

(b) If you know what's good for you, you'll leave the room. (less polite advice)