UNDERSTANDING THE ECONOMICS STANDARDS

for teachers in grades 4–5

Economics studies how people, acting as individuals or in groups, decide to use scarce resources to satisfy wants. This fundamental economic concept of scarcity is at the core of the discipline. There are never enough natural resources, human resources, or capital resources (man-made goods such as tools, equipment, machinery, factories) to produce everything society wants. Therefore, choices must be made on what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce. Choices must also be made at a personal level. There never seems to be enough money or time to have or to do everything one wants.

Economics is a way of thinking, a science of making choices. Economists examine the decision-making processes of individuals, businesses, markets, governments, and economies as a whole. An understanding of economic principles helps people to:

  • Consider not only the short-term effects of a decision, but also its long-term effects and possible unintended consequences;
  • See the connections between personal self-interest and societal goals in order to understand how individual and social choices are made in the context of an economy;
  • Analyze how social goals, such as freedom, efficiency, and equity, impact public policies.

Because of increasing interdependence and globalization, everyone in the United States needs to be aware of the issues in the global economy, their role in that system, and be able to respond to changes so that they can effectively maintain or raise their standard of living.

Goal Statements for the Economics Standards:

  • Students will learn to examine the relationship between costs and benefits, and the values associated with them.
  • Students will understand economic principles, whole economies, and the interactions between different types of economies to comprehend the movement and exchange of information, capital, and products across the globe.
  • Students will be able to assess the impact of market influences and governmental actions on the economy in which they live.
  • Students will make personal economic choices and participate responsibly and effectively in social decisionmaking as citizens in an increasingly competitive and interdependent global economy.

ECONOMICS ANCHOR STANDARD ONE: Students will analyze the potential costs and benefits of personal economic choices in a market economy [Microeconomics].

Enduring Understandings

Students will understand that:

  • Due to scarcity, individuals as producers and consumers, families, communities, and societies as a wholemust make choices in their activities and consumption of goods and services.
  • Goods, services, and resources in a market economy are allocated based on the choices of consumers and producers.
  • Effective decision making requires comparing the additional costs of alternatives relative to the additional benefits received.

How societies survive physically with a limited set of resources is the foundation for the discipline of economics. Because there are not enough resources to satisfy people’s wants, decisions have to be made regarding how resources are going to be used and distributed. By learning to analyze how these decisions are made, students have greater knowledge that will allow them to use their own and society’s resources to achieve the efficient use of resources and the maximizing of benefits relative to costs.

When economists refer to cost/benefit analysis, they mean comparing what one gains and what one gives up when making a choice. The term that describes this process is atradeoff.[1] What is given up is theopportunity cost.[2] Gains and losses are not only monetary but also have psychological components based on what individuals and societies value. Every person beginning early in life has to make decisions about how to spend time, income, and energy. If one only has enough time to read or watch TV and chooses to watch TV, then the opportunity cost is reading. When people choose one activity rather than another, the next best thing they could have done with these resources is called the opportunity cost.

On a societal level, productive resources available are land, labor, and capital. Understanding that scarcity requires that choices be made and that for every choice there are costs means that people and society can be more deliberate about what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce. An economy requires everyone in a society to engage in activities that involve the pulling together of productive resources, the organizing of work, the generating of income, and the allocating and distributing of goods and services. In the United States’mixed market economy,[3] these questions are answered through the interaction of consumers, producers, and government. Prices send signals and provide incentives that influence the decisions of both consumers and producers.

Economics Standard One 4-5a: Students will understand that prices in a market economy are determined by the interaction of supply and demand.

Economics Standard One 4-5b: Students will understand that consumers and producers in a market economy make economic choices based on supply and demand.

Essential Questions

  • Why might prices change? Who decides?
  • How do I choose what and when to buy or sell? Does price always matter?

The benchmarks in the 4–5 grade cluster are closely linked. Students learn that all decisions in market economies are established by interaction between buyers and sellers. There is no one who decides how many different kinds of sandwiches are provided for lunch every day at restaurants and stores, how many loaves of bread are baked, how many toys are produced before the holidays, or what the prices will be for these goods. Understanding how market prices and output levels are determined and how prices act as signals and incentives helps people anticipate market opportunities and make better choices as consumers (buyers) and producers (suppliers). The forces of supply and demand work best in competitive markets where there are unlimited numbers of sellers and buyers, each with reasonably accurate information, who are competing to sell or buy a relatively similar product such as tomatoes, wheat, and apples.

Supply is defined as the different quantities of a resource, good, or service that producers are willing and able to offer for sale at various prices during a specific time period. Decisions by suppliers of how much to produce reflect the cost of producing the product. As price increases, the amount of products or services producers are willing and able to make also increases. Conversely, as price decreases, the amount producers are willing and able to make decreases. This is called the Law of Supply.

This supply schedule shows that as price per half-gallon of ice cream increases, the amount or quantity producers are willing and able to supply increases. At a price of $7.00, producers are willing and able to supply 80 million half-gallons of ice cream. As the price drops to $1.00, producers are not willing to supply any ice cream. As price decreases, producers are willing and able to supply less, and as price increases, producers are willing and able to supply more.

Supply Schedule for Half-Gallons of Ice Cream

Quantity Supplied by Producers
(millions of units) / Price
($ per unit)
80 / 7.00
60 / 6.00
40 / 5.00
20 / 4.00
10 / 3.00
5 / 2.00
0 / 1.00

Demandis defined as the different quantities of a resource, good, or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices during a specific time period. Generally, as the price decreases, consumers are willing and able to buy more. As price rises, consumers will buy less. This is called the Law of Demand.

This demand schedule shows that, as the price for a half-gallon of ice cream increases, consumers are willing and able to buy less, and as the price for a half-gallon of ice cream decreases, they are willing and able to buy more. At a price of $7.00, consumers are unwilling to buy ice cream. At a price of $1.00, they are willing and able to buy 80 million half-gallons. As price for a good or service increases, consumers are willing and able to buy less of that good or service. As the price drops, they are willing to buy more.

Demand Schedule for Half-Gallons of Ice Cream

Quantity Demanded by Consumers
(millions of units) / Price
($ per unit)
0 / 7.00
5 / 6.00
10 / 5.00
20 / 4.00
40 / 3.00
60 / 2.00
80 / 1.00

The demand and supply schedule below shows the market equilibrium price[4]for a half-gallon of ice cream is $4.00 per unit. At any price below $4.00 per unit, the amount consumers are willing and able to buy is greater than the amount producers are willing and able to supply. A shortage[5] occurs when quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied. Competition among buyers will bid the price up to $4.00. At any price above $4.00 per unit, the amount producers are willing and able to supply is greater than the amount consumers are willing and able to buy. When quantity supplied exceeds quantity demanded, there will be a surplus. At a price of $4.00, the amount producers are willing to supply equals the amount consumers are willing to buy. There is neither a shortage nor a surplus. This price is called the market equilibrium price or market clearing price.

Supply and Demand Schedule for a Half-Gallon of Ice Cream

Quantity Supplied
by Producers
(millions of units) / Price
($ per unit) / Quantity Demanded
by Consumers
(millions of units)
80 / 7.00 / 0
60 / 6.00 / 5
40 / 5.00 / 10
20 / 4.00 / 20
10 / 3.00 / 40
5 / 2.00 / 60
0 / 1.00 / 80

The schedule also shows that 20 million units is the market equilibrium quantity for the market. At a quantity of 20 million units, the price that sellers are willing to accept and the price that buyers are willing to pay are equal. The market equilibrium price of $4.00 and the market equilibrium quantity of 20 million units will persist so long as other factors remain unchanged. If there is a change in supply, or if there is a change in demand, there will be a change in the market equilibrium price and quantity.

An increase in supply, for example, means sellers are willing and able to sell larger quantities at each and every price. This would result in a lower market equilibrium price and a larger quantity exchanged, assuming demand does not change. This schedule shows an increase in supply.

Supply Schedule for Half-Gallons of Ice Cream—Increase in Supply

Price
($ per unit) / Quantity Supplied by Producers
(millions of units) / Quantity Supplied by Producers Increases at All Prices
(millions of units)
7.00 / 80 / 100
6.00 / 60 / 80
5.00 / 40 / 60
4.00 / 20 / 40
3.00 / 10 / 20

A decrease in supply would have the opposite effect because producers are willing and able to supply less at every price. This schedule shows a decrease in supply for half-gallons of ice cream.

Supply Schedule for Half-Gallons of Ice Cream—Decrease in Supply

Price
($ per unit) / Quantity Supplied by Producers
(millions of units) / Quantity Supplied by Producers Decreases at all Prices
(millions of units)
7.00 / 80 / 60
6.00 / 60 / 40
5.00 / 40 / 20
4.00 / 20 / 10
3.00 / 10 / 5
2.00 / 5 / 0
1.00 / 0 / 0

Changes in supply can be due to a number of factors. For grades 4–5, the factors or determinants that cause a change in supply are changes in the cost of production (natural, human, and capital resources), the change in number of sellers in the market, or natural disasters. Examples appropriate for grades 4 and 5 are:

  • If worker wages at a skateboard factory increase, the producer of skateboards will supply fewer skateboards at all prices.
  • Producers of chocolate candy will be willing to produce more candy at every price if the price of cocoa, an input in making chocolate candy, goes down.
  • When a new manufacturer enters the market and begins to produce skateboards, more skateboards will be available at every price. Supply increases.
  • A frost kills California oranges. The supply of oranges will decrease. Suppliers are unable to supply as many oranges at any price.

An increase in demand would mean that buyers are willing and able to buy larger quantities at each and every price. This would result in a higher market equilibrium price and larger quantity exchanged. This schedule shows an increase in demand.

Demand Schedule for Half-Gallons of Ice Cream—Increase in Demand

Price
($ per unit) / Quantity Demanded by Consumers
(millions of units) / Quantity Demanded by Consumers Increases at All Prices
(millions of units)
7.00 / 0 / 5
6.00 / 5 / 10
5.00 / 10 / 20
4.00 / 20 / 40
3.00 / 40 / 60
2.00 / 60 / 80
1.00 / 80 / 100

A decrease in demand would have the opposite effect. Consumers are willing and able to purchase less at every price. This schedule shows a decrease in demand.

Demand Schedule for Half-Gallons of Ice Cream—Decrease in Demand

Price
($ per unit) / Quantity Demanded
by Consumers
(millions of units) / Quantity Demanded by Consumers Decreases at All Prices
(millions of units)
7.00 / 0 / 0
6.00 / 5 / 0
5.00 / 10 / 5
4.00 / 20 / 10
3.00 / 40 / 20
2.00 / 60 / 40
1.00 / 80 / 60

Changes in demand can be attributed to a number of factors. For grades 4–5, the factors or determinants that cause a change in demand are changes in consumers’ income, taste and fads, and price of substitute goods. Examples appropriate for grades 4 and 5 are:

  • In the market for chocolate candy bars, demand will increase if all students receive an increase in their allowance.
  • Demand for a particular brand of athletic shoes will increase if a well-known athlete advertises the shoes.
  • Consider the substitute goods chicken and pork. If the price of chicken increases and the price of pork remains the same, the demand for pork will increase. Consumers substitute the less expensive pork for the more expensive chicken.
  • Tomatoes are thought to make people sick. The demand for tomatoes will decrease.

In a perfect market, one important factor in selecting one good over another is price. This is called price competition.[6] However, many non-price competition[7] factors such as service and quality of products influence consumers’ decisions. Restaurants that set prices too high or give slow, unfriendly service risk losing customers to competing restaurants that offer lower prices, higher quality products, and better service. In this way, competition benefits consumers. Markets work best when they are fundamentally competitive, when buyers and sellers have access to sufficient reliable information, and when market prices reflect the full costs and benefits related to producing and consuming goods and services.

Here is an assessment item that illustrates the measurement of this benchmark. Students are asked to explain how the owner of the beach umbrella business could get more customers to rent her umbrellas. The item gives a context for the question with a drawing of the owner and the umbrella stand on the beach.

This drawing shows the owner of a beach umbrella business who wants more customers to rent her umbrellas.


What might this owner do to get more customers to rent her umbrellas? Explain your answer.

A student with understanding of the Economics Standard One 4–5 benchmarks would provide a solution for the problem of this owner of the beach umbrella business. The problem for this owner is how to get more customers to rent her beach umbrellas. The response would demonstrate an understanding that consumers and producers make economic choices based on supply, demand, and access to markets. The item is open-ended, which means that there is more than one way to answer this question correctly. A student with deeper understanding of the standard would also include an explanation of how or why this solution would work. The explanation would be accurate and relevant to the solution.

ECONOMICS ANCHOR STANDARD TWO: Students will examine the interaction of individuals, families, communities, businesses, and governments in a market economy [Macroeconomics].

Enduring Understandings

Students will understand that:

  • A nation’s overall levels of income, employment, and prices are determined by the interaction of spending and production decisions made by all households, firms, government, and trading partners.
  • Because of interdependence, decisions made by consumers, producers, and government impact a nation’s standard of living.
  • Market economies are dependent on the creation and use of money, and a monetary system to facilitate exchange.

Unlike the study of individual markets, the total economy is the sum of all markets in a society. Understanding involves the ability on the part of the students to analyze how changes in one market will impact others. In a market economy, there are three major players in the economy: households, businesses, and government. What the society produces generates income for households. Households sell their productive resources (land, labor, capital, and entrepreneurship) to businesses in exchange for income (rent, wages, interest, and profit). Household income is spent, taxed, or saved. The money spent for private goods and services returns to businesses, while the taxes paid to the government fund public goods and services. Savings is money households do not spend on goods and services. Most households place this income with financial intermediaries such as banks and brokers. These financial institutions transfer the savings through businesses borrowing from banks, the buying and selling of corporate stocks and bonds, the funding of mortgages, and the buying of insurance. Businesses, from small to large, borrow to expand. This requires buying more productive resources from households, which in turn creates more household income. Additionally, goods and services are exported and imported by American households and businesses causing increases in consumption and production within the United States. Economists measure these activities by calculating the gross domestic product and measure a nation’s standard of living by computing gross domestic product per capita.

Economics Standard Two 4-5a: Students will understand the role of banks and other financial institutions in the economy.

Essential Question

  • To what extent are banks necessary for an economy?

The role of banks and other financial institutions in the economy is to transfer funds, directly or indirectly, from savers to borrowers. The money households do not spend is called savings.[8] An economist uses saving and investing to describe what households do with money they do not spend on goods and services. Saving and investing are essential to long-run economic growth. Economic growth occurs when the economy produces increasing amounts of goods and services. Saving provides resources to businesses to be used as investment in capital goods.[9] When loans are made to borrowers, it stimulates the nation’s economy. The purchase of more capital goods increases a nation’s production capacity for goods and services, increases the gross domestic product,[10] and can ultimately increase the standard of living.[11]