Trends in adult education in industrialised countries
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Trends in adult education in the industrialised countries
Professor J. H. Knoll, University of Bochum
As part of the European Centre for Leisure and Education’s research project ‘The Organisation and Structure of Adult Education in Europe’, the question arose as to how to merge and unify the existing national studies in order to carry out a comparative study of structures. It goes without saying that a comparative study of systems can only be significant and fruitful if it is limited to a comparison of structure and organisation and does not attempt to deal with the educational aims of the different systems.
Admittedly, there is criticism - some of it justified - of a purely structural comparison. It is said that this approach ignores essential elements of adult education and that it therefore cannot evaluate the contents and characteristics of different national systems. Years ago, a structural description of adult education in the German Democratic Republic gave rise to the criticism that this approach - giving basic information - does not reveal the essence of the system, and that this can only be done by studying its educational perspectives and aims - in this case the development of the socialist personality. This criticism could be backed up by other examples if one considers that the question of adult education in the Federal Republic of Germany in the 1960s can only be understood against the background of historical developments which strictly speaking go back to the concept of education in the early l9th Century. Humboldt’s concept of education - abreast in adult education - was only reviewed, reformulated and partially rejected in the 1960’s under very different political, economic and ethical conditions. This would have to be taken into consideration by any comparison of adult education in the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic up to 1965, and may be even up to the publication of the German Education Council’s structural plan in 1970. This change in adult education in the Federal Republic of Germany which was put off until 1970, and which is sometimes considered to have been a turning point, has brought about a reduction in the national differences in structure.
If one were to compare the Bildungsgesamtplan (general education plan) of the Federal Commission on Educational Planning (1973) which was based on the structural plan with the developments in adult education in the German Democratic Republic since 1965, there would be clear structural similarities. These should not however drive one to some kind of convergence theory, which would hide the differences and consider the fundamental differences in ideology anthropology and the concept of history to be secondary to the 'technical and economic pressures'. It is therefore wiser to speak of convergent phenomena only where they appear in the structure of the system, and in comparative studies to date this rule has mostly been observed. Difficulties of the kind mentioned should be less frequent in comparisons between economically and politically homogeneous systems.
Leaving aside the special case of a comparison between the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, it is possible to work out a theory from a review of plans and legislation, which enables a comparison of structures of adult education in industrialised countries, while limiting the differences to national problems and fundamental concepts of adult education. The question of whether it is possible to expand this theory, as occasionally attempted, so that it becomes generally applicable regardless of the social and economic make-up of a nation, will not be pursued here, since the whole literacy discussion could then be seen only as a temporary measure, losing its significance and becoming trivialised. We will stick to a theory which is, initially limited, that regardless of ideological differences there are convergent phenomena in the structure of adult education in the industrialised countries.
Some publications could back up this theory. In the case of the Federal Republic of Germany one could examine the Bildungsgesamtplan and for the German Democratic Republic the ‘Law on the unified socialist education system of 25th February 1965’ and their consequence. In addition, and in no way in conclusion, one could consider the papers presented in an exemplary collection by the Nordic Council: Adult Education in the Nordic Countries. A report on adult education in British Columbia shows that in large, predominantly agricultural societies convergent phenomena also occur: Report of the Committee on Continuing and Community Education in British Columbia. Of a significance which goes beyond nations or systems is the latest recommendation for adult education passed by a general meeting of UNESCO in Nairobi on 26th November, 1976. This document which was approved by a very large majority, and was later taken up by a wide international audience, is of particular interest in connection with our theory of convergent phenomena. Firstly, more aspects of adult education are handled than in the other documents mentioned. For example, under the heading 'Content of Adult Education' the themes ‘Adult Education and the Education of Women’, ‘Adult Education and the Education of Socially Weak Groups’ and ‘Adult Education and the Unemployed’ are all dealt with in depth, and the reader is made aware of areas of adult education which are still very much on the fringe. These points could of course be related to specific countries, however, if one looks at the lists of contents and structures, one can pick out elements of agreement and similarity even from such a broadly generalised documentation. We would like now to mention some of the more obvious ‘convergent phenomena’.
1.Transition from subjective to objective educational needs. This means, for example, in terms of the German Democratic Republic, that in place of former interactions between adult education institutions and their students which were based on a handed-down concept of education and a personality ideal to be achieved through education, there is now a three-sided relationship i.e. institutions and their students are now required by the State, the economy and society to continually re-examine the content of adult education. Adult education enters the field of their social roles, helping the students to come to terms and fully exploit their various roles in society - as voter, father, employee, etc.
2. Use of more rigid curricula in adult education.
3. Systematising of educational and learning processes.
4. Heightening vocational education as part of adult education.
5. Standardising education content and co-operation of educational institutions.
6. Integration of adult education as an independent part of the education system.
7. Adult education as a public responsibility and a duty of both national and local governments.
8. Use of educational psychology in adult education (building block system, integration of vocational, political and general education).
9. Introduction of certificate courses and qualifications.
10. Increasing professionalisation.
11. Giving more weight to leisure education.
In addition to these points, there are others which result from specific situations. For example, the British Columbia paper calls for increased decentralisation of education institutions in order to extend their service to cover public needs more effectively. Point 11 seems to me to be particularly significant. It has become noticeable recently in the Federal Republic of Germany that there is an increased demand for education in the creative arts and personality development. It looks as if this development reflects a general trend, although it should be said that UNESCO has always taken account of leisure education and personal development, even when the education policies of the time had other priorities.
In the 1976 UNESCO recommendations, the problems of leisure and the responsibility of education in this field were set out. This may have brought about some changes in education policy in member countries. After a period of relatively technocratic and pragmatic policy in which the personality of the student was secondary to the efficiency of the learning processes, the individual’s personality now seems to be having more influence on education content.
In this context there are two other phenomena which could be mentioned. During the Expert Meeting on Organisation and Structure of Adult Education in Europe (September 1977) there was much talk of moral or ethic education and a contribution by Colin Titmus again deals with the new tendency towards individuality in adult education.
Of course, we do not want to attempt here to place these phenomena in a wider context and say that there is a general tendency away from social argumentation toward individual perspectives and needs.
Listing these convergent phenomena may be an initial step in a comparative study of international adult education. For various reasons further comparisons are difficult. Even with general questions of content where these do not explicitly correspond to standard education concepts, the agreement will only be superficial. For example, in the question of education content differences can be made between vocational, political and general goals and institutions, and the situation in the Federal Republic of Germany gives us the following :
Content / Goal / InstitutionsVocational Education (berufliche Bildung) / Competence regarding the vocational or professional role
(Fachkompetenz) / Courses, academies attached to firms, branches, etc. Partly evening classes (certificates in vocational education)
Political education
(politische Bildung) / Competence regarding the political and social role (Sozialkompetenz) / Folk-high schools, academies of political parties, labour unions
General education
(Allgemeinbildung) / Competence regarding the role of human being (Humankompetenz) / Churches, folk-high schools, evening institutes, Institutes for leisure education.
If one were now to progress from this general description to an integration of vocational, political and general education as apparently set out in the Bildungsgesamtplan, then socialist countries would raise objections based on the simple and convincing argument that each area in education contains some aspects of the others and that therefore integration does not have to be forced.
We return to our initial difficulties. First we can conclude that a comparative study should be limited to structural and organisational questions and general trends in content. For some time now, attempts have been made to compile indicator lists, with the help of statistics and add them to the comparative study. We will give some examples of models for comparative indicators.
Harrison et.al. developed an indicator tabulature in a 'Comparative Handbook'. This tabulature has some disadvantages for our work. Firstly, the catalogue is based on the developing countries, so that education exists only as one factor among others. However, for a broad comparison of nations and systems it may be useful. For education, the following indicators are given :
1. Primary school admissions per 1000 inhabitants and total 1930.
2. Ditto 1953.
3. Ditto 1960.
4. Changes in number of school admissions per head 1953-1960.
5. Primary school admissions per 1000 inhabitants and total 1956.
6. Average annual change in primary school admissions per head 1960-66.
7. Changes in primary school admissions per head from two years before until two years after independence.
8. Proportion of female admissions per 1000 primary school pupils.
9. Secondary school admissions per 102000 inhabitants and total 1960.
10. Ditto 1966.
11. Changes in secondary school admissions per head 1962 - 1966.
12. Proportion of female admissions per 1000 secondary school pupils.
13. Secondary school pupils per 1000 primary school pupils.
14. Changes in the relative numbers of secondary and primary school pupils 1952.
15.Percentage of 20 - 24 year olds in further education.
16. Literacy rate 1965.
17. Changes in literacy rate 1955-66.
18. State support for primary schools in relation to total education budget.
19.Education spending as percentage of GNP 1965.
20. Education budget as percentage of all public spending.
21. Changes in (20) 1958-1965.
22.Pupil/teacher ratio in primary schools and total number of primary school teachers 1966.
23.Changes in pupil/teacher ratio in primary schools 1960-66.
This indicator list cannot be used for a comparative study of adult education, and was only included here to show that other areas are also looking for indicators which can be used as a basis for comparative work. An indicators list developed by the World Bank on the basis of financial input, educational output, has more to do with education and also touches on the field of adult education. The authors feel that international comparisons should be handled very carefully, particularly when the indicators only deal with parts of the field. It is clear that such a broadly-based paper as that of the World Bank will contain discrepancies when it is applied to specific nations. Their interpretations of primary education, vocational education etc. are far from sufficient and cannot be valid for the education systems of specific countries.
Additionally, the literacy rate is given a predominance which is unfamiliar in Europe. Finally, education does not depend only on financial input, but on how the money is used by various institutions. Even education output i.e. examination success cannot be cited as evidence of the effectiveness of an education system.
In the FRG there is still horror felt about the paper by Georg Picht, in which Abitur figures were taken as a measure of effectiveness. These are just some of the indicators given:
- Literacy rates
- Public education expenditures per capita
- Primary enrolment ratio net
- Primary students per teacher
- Secondary enrolment ratio net
• • •
annual output from higher education per 100,00 population
In all there are 13 indicators. The socialist countries are not among the countries examined. The 'advanced' countries include Austria, Canada, FRG, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, UK, USA. The following European countries are classed as developing countries: Greece, Ireland and Spain.
The OECD also produced a tabulature of indicators, but not based on institutions and structures, but on the processes which go on within educative systems. The indicators are linked to so-called 'Concerns' and 'Sub-concerns'. Goal Area A 'Health' is followed by Goal Area B 'Individual Development through Learning'.
Concerns and Sub-Concerns
/Indicators
1.The attainment, maintenance and development by individuals of basic and further knowledge, skills and values necessary for their individual development and successful functioning as citizens in their society. / The proportion of individuals (in specific age cohorts) who have obtained specified results and specific measures related to basic and further knowledge, skills and values.2. The organised opportunities available to individuals to acquire, maintain and develop the knowledge and skills necessary for their individual development and successful functioning as citizens in their society and the propensity of individuals to use these organised opportunities. / Regular education: Average years of regular education experience of the population. Adult education: The percentage of the total population that has participated in organised non-regular learning opportunities during the past year. Physical accessibility: the percentage of the population living with an agreed reasonable distance from the various types of learning opportunities.
3. The individual’s satisfaction with the process of individual development through learning while he is in the process. / Economic accessibility: Disposable income minus:
- grants and scholarships received
- full cost of post-compulsory education.
Disposable income minus net expenditure by households on post-compulsory education.
4. The maintenance and development of cultural heritage relative to its positive contribution to the well-being of the members of various social groups.
Comparisons on the basis of this listing have not been performed to date and it cannot therefore be said whether this model would benefit comparative adult education. The final indicator list was especially produced for the ‘Expert Meeting on the Organisation and Structure of Adult Education in Europe’.
This list is based on the idea of comparability of structure and general tendencies, also in content questions that are constantly under discussion. The list begins with general social and demographic statistics, where distinctions can still be made; and then turns to the more specific aspects of adult education.
1.Size of the country
2.Population
3.Institutions and Establishments for Adult Education
4.Adult Education Legislation
5.1Research institutions dealing with adult education
5.2The most important research problems - or spheres of interest specially stressed in research in adult education
6.Training and re-training procedures; facilities and possibilities for adult educators.
7.Content of adult education (proportionally distributed)
7.1Second-chance education for adults
7.2Vocational training
7.3General adult education
8.Adult education arrangements (single lectures, series of lectures, seminars, study circles, courses a.s.o.)
9.Relations between adult education and the formal educational system (or the educational cave as it is called by ISCED)
10.Financing of education for adults
11.Trends in adult education
This listing was produced with the specific aim of merging national studies of adult education in the European member countries of UNESCO. The European Centre for Leisure and Education plans to produce a review of European adult education on the basis of national studies.
The existing national studies and material are certainly of considerable value as there is a general lack of review papers. However, they are at the moment a source of rather limited information, and comparisons are not possible because of differences in approach and information. Broad-based attempts, such as we made earlier in this paper, to ascertain trends are possible. The initiative must however be taken to adopt the indicator with the clear intention of making a comparative study. In some areas, there have already been European comparisons (see work recently published by the European Bureau for Adult Education on legislation of adult education in several European countries). The indicator discussion should lead to a comparison in adult education research.
Reproduced from 1979 Conference Proceedings, pp. 67-73 SCUTREA 1997