Things to Memorize for the AP Exam
1.Strong Electrolytes (100% ionized)
A. Strong Acids: HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3, HClO4, HClO3
B.Strong Bases: Hydroxides of group IA and II A, Except Be and Mg
C.Soluble Salts ( ionic compounds: metal/nonmetal)
Always Soluble if these are in a compoundExcept with
NO3-, Group IA, NH4+, CH3COO-, ClO4-, ClO3-No Exceptions
Cl- Br-, I-Pb, Ag, Hg22+
SO42-Ag, Pb, Hg22+
Ca, Sr, Ba
2.Thermo+-
ΔH(Enthalpy)EndothermicExothermic
ΔS (Entropy)DisorderOrder
ΔG(Gibbs Free Energy)Not SpontaneousSpontaneous
3.Trends on the Periodic Table: The closer to F, the greater the trend in every case except size and metallic character. Column IIA and VA are exceptions to the ionization energy trend because they have a full and half-full sublevel.
4.Flame Tests: Na (yellow), K (violet), Li (red), Sr (red), Ca (red), Cu (green), and Ba(green).
5.Colors of various solutions : Cu2+ (blue), CrO42- (yellow), Cr2O72- (orange), Ni2+ (green), Fe2+ (yellowish/green), Fe3+ (brown/yellow) MnO4- (purple), I- (purple), Zn2+ (colorless), Cu(NH3)42+ (dark blue)
6.Element Colors: Bromine (red/brown), Iodine (violet), Chlorine (yellow/green), Sulfur (yellow). Mercury & Bromine are liquids.
7.Intermolecular Attractions from strongest to weakest: Ion-Ion (metal/nonmetal), Hydrogen Bonding ( H attached to N,O, or F), Dipole/Dipole ( polar molecule), and London Dispersion (nonpolar molecule).
8.Polyatomic Ions:
1-2-1+
ClOHypochloriteC2O4Oxalate NH4 Ammonium
ClO2ChloriteCO3Carbonate
ClO3ChlorateCr2O7Dichromate
ClO4PerchlorateCrO4Chromate
CNCyanideSO4Sulfate
MnO4PermanganateSO3Sulfite
NO3Nitrate
NO2Nitrite
OHHydroxide
HCOO Formate
HCO3 Hydrogen Carbonate (bicarbonate)3-
HSO3 Hydrogen Sulfite (bisulfite) PO4 Phosphate
CH3COO Acetate PO3 Phosphite
SCNThoicyanate
In addition, know that Pb can be +2 or +4, Fe (+2,+3), and Cu(+1,+2)
9. Oxidation of water: 2H2O O2 + 4H+ + 4e-
Reduction of water: 2 H2O + 2 e- H2 + 2OH-
10. Most common complex ions: (a) When ammonia(NH3) is added to Ag1+, Cu2+ it produces : Cu(NH3)42+ cupric tetraamine, Ag(NH3)2+ silver diamine. When concentrated OH- is added to Zn(OH)2 it produces Zn(OH)42-. When Fe3+ is in thiocyanate SCN- it makes Fe(SCN)63- complex. Co2+ with chlorine CoCl42-. Notice the number of ligands (things attached to the metal) is usually double the oxidation number of the metal. Transition metals with NH3, OH-, or SCN- often form complexes.
11. Terms Lattice or Lattice Energy goes with ionic compounds. Term delocalized electrons goes with metals (metallic bonds)
12. Memory List Oxidizers and Reducers
Oxidizing AgentsFormed in Rxn
MnO4- (acid)Mn2+
MnO4- (base)MnO2
MnO2 (acid) Mn2+
Cr2O72- (acid)Cr3+
Cr2O72- (base) CrO42-
CrO42-Cr3+
Free Halogen (F2, Cl2 ...)Halide ion ( F-, Cl- ...)
HNO3 (concentrated)NO2
HNO3 (dilute)NO
H2SO4 (hot)SO2
H2O2H2O
Metal- ic (high) Fe3+Metal-ous (low) Fe2+
HClO4Cl-
Reducing AgentsFormed in Rxn
Halide ions (F-, Cl-, ...)Free halogens ( F2, Cl2, ...)
Free Metal (Cu)Metal ions ( Cu2+)
Metal-ous (Fe2+)Metal-ic (Fe3+)
Sulfite ion (SO32-)Sulfate ion (SO42-)
Nitrite (NO2-)Nitrate ion (NO3-)
C2O42-(oxalate ion)CO2
Free halogens, dil, basic sol’n (Cl2)hypohalite ions (ClO1-)
Free halogens, conc. basic sol’nhalite ions (ClO21-)
13.Organic Chemistry: These names go with the following numbers of carbons: (1) methane (CH4), (2) ethane (CH3CH3 or C2H6), (3) propane, (4) butane (5) pentane (6) hexane (7) heptane (8) octane
14.Naming Alcohols: Alcohols end in –OH. The number of carbons determines the name: CH3OH – methyl alcohol or methanol, CH3CH2OH- ethyl alcohol or ethanol. “nol” at the end of the name means it is an alcohol, and benzene is C6H6
15.Functional Groups: This tells you what kind of a compound it is:
(a) alcohol ends in –OH
(b) Ether C-O-C
(c) Ketone C-C (Oxygen double bonded to this C) – C
(d) Aldehyde C(O double bonded) – H bonded to other side of C
(e) Amine- C – NHx
(f) Acid - Ends in COOH
(g) all single bond hydrocarbons are called alkanes (h) double bonds are called alkenes (i) triple bonds are called alkynes
Nuclear Chemistry
16.(a) Alpha Particle - a helium nucleus consisting of 2p and 2n, 4/2 He. It has a 2+ charge (b) Beta Particle- is an electron 0/-1 e and has a negative charge (c) gamma ray- is emitted from the nucleus and has no mass 0/0 and no charge.
17.Kinetics: If ln[A] vs t is a straight line then it is a first order rxn. If 1/[A] vs t is a straight line, it is second order. If [A] vs t is a straight line then it is a zero order rxn. The rate at any time can be determined by drawing a line tangent to the point and taking the slope of the line.
1st order integrated rate equation: ln[At]= -akt + ln[Ao]
2nd order integrated rate equation: 1 / [At] = akt + 1 / [Ao]
0 order integrated rate equation: [At] = [Ao] - akt
18. Arrhenius Theory: Acid ~ substance that contains hydrogen and produces H+ in aqueous solutions. Base ~ substance that contains OH and produces hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions.
Bronsted-Lowry Theory: Acid ~ a species that acts as a proton donor. Base ~ a species that acts as a proton acceptor
Lewis Theory: Acid ~ a substance that accepts a share in an electron pair to form a coordinate covalent bond. Base ~ a substance that makes available a share in an electron pair to form a coordinate covalent bond.
19. Equilibrium: K = 1 rxn is at equil. K > 1 rxn is spontaneous, product favored. K < 1 rxn is nonspontaneous, reactant favored. If Q = K rxn is at equil. If Q > K, rxn proceeds to reactants side. If Q < K, rxn proceeds to product side.